Labor productivity as a criterion for the efficiency of the use of labor resources. Movement in the costs of living and materialized labor The cost content of the costs of living labor

QUESTION 23

Labor productivity characterizes efficiency, effectiveness of labor costs and is determined by the amount of products produced per unit of working time, or labor costs per unit of products produced or work performed.Distinguish between the productivity of living and the productivity of social (aggregate) labor.

The productivity of living labor is determined by the cost of working time in each separate production, and productivity of social (aggregate) labor -costs of living and materialized (past) labor. The productivity of social (aggregate) labor in relation to the entire national economy is calculated as the sum of the national income per person employed in the branches of material production.

In enterprises, labor productivity is defined as the cost efficiency of only living labor and is calculated through the indicators of production and labor intensity of products, between which there is an inverse relationship (Fig. 3).

Figure: 3. Indicators of labor productivity

Generation (B)— this is the amount of products produced per unit of working time or per one average employee or worker for a certain period (hour, shift, month, quarter, year).It is calculated as the ratio of the volume of products produced (OP)to the cost of working time for the production of these products (T)or to the average number of employees or workers (H):

V \u003d OP / T or V \u003d OP / H.

Note that when determining the level of labor productivity through the indicator of production, the numerator (volume of products produced) and the denominator of the formula (labor costs for the production of products or the average number of employees) can be expressed in different units of measurement. In this regard, depending on the used denominator, the formulas distinguish between the average hourly, average daily, average monthly, average quarterly and average annual output.

Index average daily output production reflects the average volume of products produced by one worker per day worked:

When calculating daily output days worked by a person do not include all-day downtime and absenteeism. It depends on the average hourly output and the degree of use of the duration of the working day:


In days \u003d In hour × P cm,

where P cm is the average actual duration of the working day (shift).

Note that if the costs labor is measured by the average number of workers, then an indicator of the average monthly (average quarterly, average annual) output is obtained, per one average worker (depending on which period of time the volume of production and the number of workers refer to - month, quarter, year):

Average monthly output depends on the average daily output and on the number of days worked on average by one average worker:

In month \u003d B d × T f

In month \u003d In hour × T f × P cm,

where T f is the average actual duration of the working period, days.

The relationship of this indicator with the previous one is determined by the specific gravity (d)workers in the total number of PPP employees:

Indicators mid-quarterand average annual output per one average worker (employee) are determined in the same way. Note that the volume of production of gross and marketable products can be calculated by the formula:

As for the numerator of the output indicator, then, depending on the choice of the unit of measurement, the volume of products produced can be expressed in natural, value and labor units of measurement. Accordingly, there are three methods for determining production: natural (conditionally natural), cost and labor (according to standardized working time).

Natural indicatorsmeasurements labor productivity are the most reliable and accurate and to a greater extent correspond to its essence, however, the scope of their application is limited. Natural indicators in determining production are used at enterprises of such industries as gas, coal, oil, electric power, forestry, etc., and conditionally natural indicators are used in the textile, cement industry, metallurgy, production of mineral fertilizers, etc.

Compared to naturalcost method definition of production is universal, but it takes into account not only the change in the costs of living labor, but also to a large extent the influence of structural changes in the production program, material consumption of products, price changes, etc. Production in monetary terms at the enterprise depending on the field of application of this the indicator can be determined by the indicators of gross, marketable, sold and net production.

Labor methodmeasurements labor productivity involves the use of an indicator of labor intensity as a measure of production. In practice, it has a limited scope: in individual workplaces, in teams, on sites and in workshops that produce heterogeneous and unfinished products that cannot be measured either in natural or in value units. In most cases, the standardized technological labor intensity at the beginning of the year is used as a production meter.

The main planning and accounting indicators labor productivity at industrial enterprises is the volume of production in kind or in value terms per one worker of industrial production personnel (per man-day or man-hour worked) and the labor intensity of a unit of production or work. Labor intensity (T p ) represents the cost of living labor for the production of a unit of output.The labor intensity indicator has a number of advantages over the production indicator. It establishes a direct relationship between the volume of production and labor costs and is determined by the formula:

T p \u003d T / OP,

where T- time spent on production of all products, standard hours or man-hours; OP- the volume of manufactured products in physical terms.

Note that the production rate is a direct indicator of labor productivity, since the greater the value of this indicator (other things being equal), the higher labor productivity. The labor intensity indicator is the opposite, since the lower the value of this indicator, the higher labor productivity. There is a relationship between the change in the rate of time (labor intensity) and production. If the time rate decreases by (C n) percent, then the production rate increases by (Y in) percent, and vice versa. The indicated dependence is expressed by the following formulas:

Example.The time rate has decreased by 20%, then the production rate will increase by Y in \u003d (100 × 20) / (100 - 20) \u003d 2000/80 \u003d 25%. Conversely, if the production rate increases by 25%, then the time rate will decrease by C n \u003d (100 × 25) / (100 + 25) \u003d 20%.

Depending on the composition of labor costs, included in the labor intensity of products, and their role in the production process, distinguish technological labor intensity, labor intensity of service production, production labor intensity, labor intensity of production management and total labor intensity (Figure 16.4).

Figure: 4. The structure of the total labor intensity of production

Technological labor intensity (T tech)reflects the labor costs of the main production workers, pieceworkers (T Xia)and time workers (T povr):

T tech \u003d T sd + T povr,

The indicator of technological labor intensity is the most widespread, because the rationing of labor at an enterprise (firm) concerns workers to a greater extent, and to a lesser extent - employees.

Labor intensity of production maintenance (T obsl) is the aggregate of the costs of auxiliary workers of the main production departments (T auxiliary)and all workers of auxiliary workshops and services (repair, energy workshop, etc.) engaged in the maintenance of production (T pop):

T obsl \u003d T auxiliary + T auxiliary

Production labor intensity(T pr) includes the labor costs of all workers, both main and auxiliary:

T pr \u003d T tech + T obsl.

Labor intensity of production management (T y) represents the labor costs of employees (managers, specialists and actual employees) employed both in the main and auxiliary workshops (T sl.pr),and in the general plant services of the enterprise (T sl. Head):

T y \u003d T sl.pr + T sl. Head.

As part of full labor intensity (T full)reflects the labor costs of all categories of industrial production personnel of the enterprise:

T full \u003d T tech + T obsl + T y.

Depending on the nature and purpose of costslabor each of the specified indicators of labor intensity can be design, prospective, normative, planned and actual. In planned calculations, a distinction is made between the labor intensity of manufacturing a unit of production (type of work, service, parts, etc.) and the labor intensity of the commodity output (production program).

Labor intensity of a unit of production (type of work, service), as already noted, is subdivided into technological, production and complete, depending on the labor costs included in the calculations. Labor intensity per unit of production in physical terms is determined for the entire range of products and services at the beginning of the planning period. With a large assortment, labor intensity is determined by representative products, to which all the others are listed, and by products that occupy the largest share in the total volume of production.

Labor intensity of commodity release (T tv ) calculated by the following formula:

where T i- labor intensity of a unit of production (works, services), standard hours; OP, is the volume of output of the i-th type of product, according to the plan, of the corresponding units; p- the number of names (nomenclature) of products (works, services), according to the plan.

T ore content of the production program is defined similarly. Note that if the technological (production, full) labor intensity of a unit of products (works, services) is used in the calculations, then, accordingly, we obtain the technological (production, full) labor intensity of the commodity output (production program).

The indicator of the level of labor productivity, depending on the choice of units of measurement of production, can be calculated by three methods - natural, labor and cost.

If the production is recorded in natural units of measurement (pieces, meters, tons, etc.), then the indicator of the level of labor productivity is calculated natural method... In this case, this indicator is expressed by the number of pieces, meters, tons, etc. of products produced per unit of time:

where Q - the volume of products in natural units.

The advantages of the natural method lie in the simplicity of calculations, clarity and objectivity in measuring the level of labor productivity. The main disadvantage of this method is the limited scope of its application. It can be used only in enterprises or in industries where homogeneous products are produced or where labor costs are recorded for each type of product. However, the scope of application of the natural method is somewhat expanding due to the use of conditionally natural units of measurement of products.

If the accounting of manufactured products is carried out in standard working hours, then the indicator of the level of labor productivity is calculated labor method... In this case, the standard labor intensity is a co-measure for various types of products or work:

where Q - the volume of production in labor units.

The advantage of the labor method is that it can be used to measure the productivity of workers performing various types of work. However, this method is also characterized by a limited scope of application, since the labor intensity standards at different enterprises do not coincide. The labor method is applied at the level of individual production areas, where standards for the cost of working time have been developed and prices for products are usually absent.

If the production is recorded in monetary terms, then the indicator of the level of labor productivity is calculated cost method... In this case, the volume of production in monetary terms is compared with the costs of living labor:

where Q is the volume of production in monetary terms.

T- labor costs

The main advantage of the cost method is that it can be used to measure the level and dynamics of labor productivity in the production of heterogeneous products. Also, this method provides the ability to obtain summary data on industries, territories and the economy as a whole.

In different sectors of the economy, different indicators of labor productivity are used:

  • 1) in industry - the volume of production in kind or in value terms per one worker of industrial production personnel, per person worked day or man-hour; labor intensity of a unit of production or work;
  • 2) in agriculture - production in monetary terms per one average annual worker, per one worked man-day; production of agricultural products in physical terms per one man-hour worked; labor costs in man-hours per unit of production;
  • 3) in construction - the volume of construction and installation work at an estimated cost per one worker of construction and production personnel employed in construction and installation work and in ancillary industries listed on the balance sheet of construction organizations, per one worked man-day or person -hour;
  • 4) in trade - turnover per employee, per person-day worked.

As you know, labor is the most important part of the modern economy. In the theory of social and labor relations, such economic categories are distinguished as productive labor, unproductive labor, and the productive force of labor.

Productive labor is labor directly involved in the creation of the natural-material form of social wealth, the aggregate social product, the national income, independent of the socio-economic form of production.

The productive force of labor is a measure of the effectiveness of a person's purposeful production activity.

  • the level and dynamics of the productive force of living labor;
  • a high level and increased return on the costs of past labor (embodied in the means and objects of labor);
  • the need for higher growth rates of results relative to the cost of living and past labor.

This law includes a causal (direct and feedback) relationship, characterized by minimizing the costs of living and materialized labor and maximizing the results of material production on the basis of constant improvement of scientific and technical knowledge of society, increasing the productive power of living labor, and increasing the return on means and objects of labor.

The efficiency (effectiveness) of the labor process is nothing more than the ratio of the product to the costs of living and materialized labor that generated it.

The total efficiency of social production can be found by adding up the efficiency of living labor, the efficiency of the functioning means of labor and the efficiency of the objects of labor.

  • The efficiency of living labor can be found as the ratio of the total results of the production process to the costs of living labor of workers in material production.
  • Efficiency of functioning means of labor - as the ratio of the total results of the production process to the costs of functioning means of labor.
  • The effectiveness of objects of labor - as the ratio of the total results of the production process to the costs of functioning objects of labor.

Effectiveness (effectiveness) level , which is expressed in the relation of the product to labor costs, tends to the maximum, since the level of the workers' abilities must steadily increase, and the production conditions in the course of the scientific, technical, technological and information process must constantly improve. This definition of the efficiency (effectiveness) of social production emphasizes the labor origin of the effect.

As follows from the content of the law of labor economics, an increase in the efficiency of using the costs of living and materialized labor, an increase in its productive power, a decrease in production costs on the basis of scientific, technological and other achievements lead to an increase in the productivity of social labor, to the efficiency of social (national) production as a whole.

Economic efficiency can act as both general economic and socio-economic efficiency. General economic efficiency is the efficiency of the material and technical side of production. It is characterized by the economy of labor in the production of a certain mass of the product with the existing production apparatus and acts here as a function of the objective law of saving labor time.

Within the framework of the labor process, as the main component of material production, the essence of production efficiency lies in the level of labor productivity. This conclusion follows from the very inner content of the labor process. It involves labor power, means of labor and objects of labor - the three main factors of production.

The active beginning of the whole process is labor force, the activity of which is labor. Labor itself activates the means of production, a labor process takes place, subordinated to a specific goal, the creation of a material product (use value). All factors of the labor process are the sources of the creation of a material product, but not each individually, but collectively, being realized through labor.

Thus, labor efficiency is measured using an indicator of labor productivity .

Labor productivity is an indicator of the effectiveness of the expedient activities of employees, which is measured by the amount of work (products, services) done per unit of time. Labor productivity characterizes the ability of workers to create goods and services with their labor in an hour, shift, week, decade, month, quarter, year.

The amount of work done by one worker is called elaboration ... A performance indicator can be used to measure any job: manufacturing products, selling goods, or providing services. Labor productivity is calculated as the ratio of the amount of work per unit of time to the number of employees.

Three methods of measuring labor productivity are applied : cost, natural and labor.

Cost method measurement allows you to compare the productivity of workers in different professions, qualifications, but the disadvantage of this method is the influence of the price factor - market conditions and inflation.

Natural method measurement of labor productivity is used in the case of production of homogeneous products. A variety of the natural method is the conditionally natural method, when the volume of work is taken into account in conventional units of homogeneous products.

Conditionally natural method convenient for use, since the production of many different goods using conversion factors can be brought into a comparable form. For example, the cost of selling flour, bread and pasta can be expressed in terms of conversion factors to the cost of selling one conventional kilogram of bakery products.

At the heart of labor method lies the measurement of the volume of products using the conditional labor intensity of production or sale of products. When measuring labor productivity by the labor method, the standards of time for the production of a unit of output or the sale of a unit of goods are used.

The advantage of the labor method is the ability to apply it to all types of work and services. But for the widespread use of the method, time standards are required for each type of work, which are not always available. This method cannot be used to calculate the productivity of workers on time wages for whom time norms do not apply.

Labor productivity is influenced by the labor intensity of work. Labor intensity is an indicator characterizing the cost of living labor, expressed in working time spent on the production of goods (services). Labor intensity is usually measured in standard hours (actual hours of work spent on producing a unit of work). This indicator is the inverse of labor productivity and is calculated as the ratio of working time to the amount of products produced.

It should be noted that living and materialized labor is concentrated in any finished product. Thanks to such aggregate labor, material values \u200b\u200bare created.

Living labor is the energy consumption of the human body. During physical labor, muscle energy is expended, which is measured in calories; during mental labor, the energy of mental activity is expended. Naturally, the costs of living labor have physiological boundaries. Reified labor characterizes the living labor in the past (past labor) embodied in objects and means of labor - in machines, mechanisms, equipment, automation.

As society develops, living labor encompasses an ever-increasing mass of materialized labor. As a result, in aggregate labor with an increase in the share of materialized labor, the share of living labor decreases. This is the main sign of productivity growth .

Improvement of production and scientific and technological progress is the main condition for the growth of labor productivity ... The introduction of new technologies, automation equipment leads to the growth of labor mechanization.

Indicator of the level of mechanization can be defined as the ratio of the number of mechanized workers to the total average number of workers. The workers of mechanized labor include those who perform their work with the help of machines and mechanisms. An increase in the level of mechanization (automation) of labor indicates an increase in the share of materialized labor and the possibility of increasing labor productivity without increasing the cost of living labor.

An important characteristic of living labor is intensity. Labor intensity - This is the degree of intensity of living labor, determined by costs (physical, mental and nervous energy per unit of time). The scientific organization of labor involves the use of normal labor intensity, at which there are no irreversible negative changes in the worker's life.

In the concept of "labor productivity" and in the calculations of this indicator, there are still many unclear points. With a huge variety of types of labor activity, it is not always possible to reliably determine this indicator.

So, if you determine the productivity of a doctor who sees ten patients per hour, and another doctor who sees only two patients during the same time, using the above methodology, then you can make the wrong conclusion about the high performance of the first doctor. Similarly, you can approach the issue of the effectiveness of the work of a hairdresser, seamstress in an atelier or an artist.

The most reasonable approach to determining labor productivity is achieved if the following requirements are met:

  • accounting of all labor costs for this type of work;
  • elimination of distortions associated with differences in labor intensity;
  • exclusion of repeated counting (in particular, past labor);
  • the possibility of comparing the rate of change in labor productivity and average wages.

The growth of labor productivity is the main real source of overcoming the negative consequences of both the reform period and the global financial crisis. This is the most important factor in the irreversibility of the ongoing reforms, and ultimately - improving the life of the people.

Under labor productivityunderstand the degree of its fruitfulness. It is measured by the amount of use values \u200b\u200bcreated per unit of time, or by the amount of time spent per unit of the product of labor.

Distinguish between the productivity of living labor, determined by the cost of working time in a given production at a given enterprise, and the productivity of aggregate social labor, measured by the cost of living and materialized (past) labor.

An increase in labor productivity takes place when the proportion of living labor decreases, and the proportion of materialized labor increases. This growth takes place in such a way that the total amount of labor contained in the commodity is reduced. The point is that the mass of living labor decreases to a greater extent than the mass of materialized labor grows.

The total savings in working time, taken in accordance with costs and production resources, characterizes the efficiency of production.

In enterprises, labor productivity is measured by the rate of output per worker or per unit of time. In these cases, the indicator takes into account only the economy of living labor. At the same time, labor productivity can be measured as the ratio of the physical volume of national income to the number of workers in material production. The specificity of this indicator is that it directly reflects the economy of living labor and indirectly - through the volume of national income - the economy of social labor. Hence, the most general approach to the distribution of labor productivity can be expressed by the formula:

Fri - labor productivity;

P is a product in one form or another;

T is the cost of living labor.

Forms of manifestation

The essence of labor productivity can be understood more deeply if we understand the forms of its manifestation.

First of all, labor productivity is manifested as reduction of labor costs per unit of use value and shows the savings in working time. Most importantly - absolute reduction in labor costsnecessary to meet a certain social need.

Hence the focus of enterprises on the search for methods of saving labor and material resources, that is, reducing the number of workers in those areas where it is possible, as well as saving raw materials, fuel and energy.

Labor productivity manifests itself in the same way as growth in the mass of use values, created per unit of time. An important point here is the results of labor, which mean not just an increase in the volume of goods produced, but also an increase in their quality. Consequently, taking into account such a manifestation of labor productivity in practice implies a wide application in business planning and commercial incentives of approaches that reflect utility, that is, power, efficiency, reliability, etc.

Labor productivity is also manifested in the form changes in the ratio of costs of living and materialized labor ... If past labor is relatively more widely used in the production process compared to living labor, the enterprise has a chance to increase labor productivity, and therefore, to increase the wealth of society.

However, options are possible. In one case, with a decrease in the costs of living labor, the costs of materialized labor per unit of output increase both relatively and absolutely (with a decrease in total costs). In another, the costs of past labor grow only relatively, but their absolute expression falls. Such processes, for example, are observed, respectively, either when manual labor is replaced by mechanized labor, or when modernizing outdated equipment, reconstructing enterprises on the basis of more progressive and efficient means of production.

The growth of labor productivity has a great influence on increase in the mass and rate of the surplus product... The fact is that the excess of the product of labor over the costs of maintaining labor, as well as the formation and accumulation of a social production and reserve fund on this basis - all this was and remains the basis of any social, political and intellectual progress.

Finally, labor productivity manifests itself in the form reduction of turnaround time , which is directly related to saving time. The latter in this case acts as a calendar time. Savings in this case are achieved by reducing the production time and circulation time, that is, tightening the construction time and mastering production capacities, promptly introducing scientific and technological achievements into production, accelerating innovation processes and replicating best practices.

As a result, the enterprise, with the same resources of living and materialized labor, gets the final results per year higher, which is tantamount to an increase in labor productivity. Hence, taking the time factor into account becomes extremely important in organization and management, especially in the context of a high dynamism of a market economy, constant transformations in the course of reforms, and the growth and complication of social needs.

Production efficiency

Labor productivity is an important indicator in the production efficiency measurement system. At the same time, it is influenced by the size and especially the quality of the capital-labor ratio, that is, the measure of equipping labor with fixed capital.

Capital-labor ratio, in turn, is measured by the ratio of the value of the value of fixed capital to the cost of living labor (number of employees):

Фв - capital-labor ratio;

Ф - the value of the cost of fixed capital.

This relationship should be taken into account when considering the impact of labor productivity on overall production efficiency.

The fact is that not any increase in labor productivity is effective, but only when the saving of living labor pays for the additional costs of increasing its technical equipment, and in the shortest possible time.

Return on assets characterizes the efficiency of using fixed capital. It is measured by the amount of goods produced per a given amount of fixed capital:

There is a close relationship between labor productivity, capital productivity and capital-labor ratio, which can be expressed by the formula:

Fri \u003d Ф0 x Фв.

It follows from this dependence that labor productivity increases provided that the capital productivity and (or) capital-labor ratio grow, and falls in the inverse relationship. At the same time, if labor productivity grows faster than its capital-labor ratio, then capital productivity grows. Conversely, capital productivity falls if the dynamics of labor productivity lags behind the growth of capital-labor ratio.

As scientific and technological progress and production improve, the share of social labor costs increases, since the worker's equipment with new means of labor increases. However, the main trend is that the absolute value of the costs of both living and social labor per unit of production is reduced. This is the essence of increasing the productivity of social labor.

Labor productivity level

It is characterized by two indicators. Firstly, production of products per unit of time. It is a direct, most widespread and universal indicator of labor productivity. Depending on the units in which the volume of production is measured, certain outputs are distinguished in physical terms, as well as in terms of standardized working hours.

Secondly, labor intensitymanufacture of products, which expresses the cost of working time to create a unit of production. This is the inverse indicator, which is determined per unit of production in physical terms for the entire range of goods and services. It has several advantages:

Establishes a direct relationship between the volume of production and labor costs;

Eliminates the influence on the labor productivity indicator of changes in the volume of supplies for cooperation, the organizational structure of production;

Allows you to closely link the measurement of productivity with the identification of reserves for its growth;

Compare labor costs for identical products in different shops of the enterprise.

These indicators of production and labor intensity can be represented by the following formulas:

in = -- ;

t = -- ,

in - production output per unit of time;

t - labor intensity of production;

B is the value of the manufactured products (rubles);

T - the time spent on the production of a given volume of products.

There are several types of labor intensity.

Technological labor intensity (t those) includes all the costs of the main workers. The labor intensity of the production service (t obs) includes the labor costs of auxiliary workers.

Production labor intensity reflects the labor costs of all (main and auxiliary) workers.

Labor intensity managementproduction (t control) is made up of labor costs of engineering and technical personnel, employees, service personnel and security.

Fulllabor intensity (t floor) represents the labor costs of all categories of industrial production personnel: t floor \u003d t tech + t obs + t control.

Increase reserves

Determination of ways to increase labor productivity is an important stage in the analytical work of each enterprise. Therefore, in domestic practice, a specific classification of reserves for increasing labor productivity has become widespread.

Raising the technical level of production.Among its main directions are mechanization and automation of production, the introduction of new technological processes, the improvement of the structural properties of products, the improvement of the quality of raw materials and new structural materials, the introduction of new energy sources, and the "learning" of production.

Improving the organization of production and labor.It provides for the improvement of the existing and the formation of a new workforce, raising the norms and service areas, reducing the number of workers who do not fulfill the norms, preventing staff turnover, simplifying the management structure, mechanizing accounting and computing work; change in the working period; increasing the level of production specialization.

Change in external, natural conditions. We are talking about socialization, adaptation to the needs of the modern worker, about achieving ecological balance. At the same time, changes are needed not only in terms of mining coal, oil, gas, ores, peat, in the content of useful substances, but also in agriculture, transport and other industries.

Structural changes in production. They include a change in the share of certain types of products, the labor intensity of the production program, the share of purchased semi-finished products and components, an increase in the weight of new products.

Creation and development of the necessary social infrastructure.It is designed to solve financial problems, problems of timely payment of labor and many other issues aimed at meeting the needs of enterprises, work collectives and their families.

Increase in labor productivity by increasing production volumes and changes in the number of employees can be determined by the formula:

∆P \u003d --------,

∆В is the share of the increase in output at the enterprise in a given period;

∆Рn is the share of a decrease in the number of employees of the enterprise.

Increase in labor productivity of employees at the enterprise due to increasing the share of cooperative deliveries of productsdetermined by the formula:

dk1, dk0 - share of corporate supplies and gross output of the enterprise, respectively, in the base and planned periods (in%).

Labor productivity growth due to better use of the working time fund is calculated by the formula:

∆P \u003d ------- x 100,

Фэ1, Фэ0 - effective annual fund of working time of one worker, respectively, in the basic and planned periods (in man-hours).

A separate enterprise, determining the required number of workers to be hired, must determine the price of demand for labor, that is, the level of wages.

The price of demand for any factor of production and labor depend on marginal performance... It represents the increment in the volume of output caused by the use of an additional unit of labor under fixed other conditions.

Marginal productivity is calculated on the basis of the marginal product of labor, which is understood as the increase in production produced as a result of hiring another additional unit of labor.

Consequently, the management of the enterprise, based on the need to optimize all the resources involved, will apply or displace labor, reaching the level of marginal productivity. The fact is that it is difficult to force an enterprise to act differently, since the interest of its survival in a competitive environment is threatened. In such a situation, various options are possible.

Competitiveness strategy

For outsider enterprise market, you can offer several directions for increasing competitiveness:

A radical reorganization by revising the basic competition strategies used;

Increased income through higher prices and marketing costs;

Reducing costs and all-round savings;

Reduction of assets;

Combination of different methods.

An enterprise with a weak competitive position has, in essence, three main ways out of this situation.

He will have to improve his competitiveness by working with cheap products or by using new methods of differentiation. An effective method is to maintain and maintain sales volumes, market share, profitability and a specific position at existing levels. Finally, business reinvestment at a barely sufficient minimum is important. Their goal is to generate short-term profits and / or maximize short-term cash flows.

An enterprise with a strong competitive positionis called upon to further search for a free market niche and to concentrate efforts on making it possible to build up its own potential. It is also possible for such enterprises to adapt to a specific consumer group. Another way is to create a better product. Following the leader is not ruled out either. Sometimes the takeover of small firms is practiced. Finally, the creation of a positive and distinctive image of a given enterprise cannot be discounted.

Enterprise competitiveness, which is understood as its ability to participate in the economic competition of commodity producers for the most profitable areas of capital investment, sales markets, sources of raw materials, requires its maintenance, and sometimes even improvement.

To do this, the leader needs at least a continuation of the offensive economic policy, preservation of current positions, and confrontation with competitors.

In any case, no matter what position the company occupies in the market environment, an important condition for its survival and increasing competitiveness is the growth of labor productivity. It is the higher labor productivity that has always ensured and ensures advantages, and ultimately victory, not only to individual enterprises, their associations, industries, but also to countries.

Living labor and materialized labor

The elements of the production process by the nature of their participation in production and depending on their connection with the nature of the manifestation of labor in the production process itself can be divided into two parts: directly into living labor of people and into materialized or past labor. The composition of materialized labor includes the means of labor and objects of labor.

Under materialized means the labor expended earlier, when the means and objects of labor were manufactured, and which are used in production at a given time. The division of all labor costs into these two groups makes some sense.

Firstly, the costs of living and materialized labor in their totality predetermine the value of the product of labor. A product or service is worth, first of all, as much as it is spent on their production and realization of living and materialized labor.

Secondly, the efficiency of production is determined by the combination of the costs of living and materialized labor, which in these conditions provide a specific result of production and specific costs for obtaining this result.

Thirdly, as the economy develops, there is a natural change in the ratio between the costs of living and materialized labor.

Therefore, it is important to know how and to what consequences changes in the relationship between living and materialized labor lead.

A number of variants of such changes are usually identified. Let's consider them with an example. Let in the given production process a specific ratio in the expenditure of living and materialized labor per unit of labor product has developed - option "a". The combination of these costs determines the efficiency of the production process.

W - costs of living labor of workers;

About - the costs of materialized labor in the means and objects of labor.


and) ABOUT F
b) About 1 F 1
in) About 2 F 2
d) About 3 F 3

Let us introduce a new means of labor, the value of which is growing more than technical productivity. Moreover, the means of labor leads to a reduction in the cost of living labor per unit of product, which is greater than the increase in the cost of materialized labor - option "b".

About 1 \u003d 12 p.; F 1 \u003d 7 p.;

Total labor costs are reduced, and efficiency is increased.

Let the introduced new means of labor be more technically productive, its value changes by the same amount as the technical productivity - option “c”.

About 2 \u003d 10 p.; W 2 \u003d 7 p.;

The total labor costs are reduced, the efficiency increases significantly.



Let the introduced new means of labor be more technically productive and its cost will decrease - option "g".

About 3 \u003d 8 p.; W 3 \u003d 7 p.;

Overall labor costs are reduced and efficiency is increased even more.

What is hidden behind these variants of changes in the costs of living and materialized labor. It turns out that by developing the means of labor and using more advanced ones, we replace the living labor of people with labor embodied in them and make it more effective.

Not all options are unconditional. Options "b" and "c" are not unconditional, since they have a border in increasing efficiency. Option "d" is unconditional, because has no limits in improving efficiency.

Thus, the essence of changes in the costs of living and materialized labor is that the replacement of living labor by materialized is a regularity, the observance of which ensures an increase in production efficiency and the economy develops the more successfully, the faster this process of substitution proceeds according to option "d".

The same applies to materialized labor in objects of labor.

 

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