Transparent glass was invented. History of glass in the history of mankind. The invention and production of glass. IV. Fixing the material studied

Before you get to us in the form, in which we now know it, the glass has done a long way to a few thousand years.


The dwellings of our progenitors, ancient people, did not have a glass at all. The light penetrated through narrow passes in rocks or stony caves.

But the invention of glass is not a person privilege. Samples of this material people showed ... nature. Natural windows were formed from Lava, pouring out during. The glass was muddy, dark in color. Today we know him as obsidian.

Glass inventors

The history of this material is so far in time, which changed more than once in the light of archaeological discoveries and is still considered controversial. Egypt, Mediterranean, Africa and ancient Mesopotamia are presented to the championship in glass glaze.

Samples of Egyptian glass is a glass glaze on the faience tiles of the pyramid Jessa, the time of creation of which is the XXVII century BC. e. There are even earlier samples - faience ornaments age about 5,000 years old.


First, the glass of Egyptians came out a muddy bluish or greenish shade - depending on where the sand was mined for its production and which impurities it contained. The colorless glass has learned how to do much later, probably in the first century, our era is already: a manganese began to be used for discoloration.

In Mesopotamia, archaeologists found glass cylindrical printing about 4,500 years. The vessels for incense are one of the frequent finds of scientists during the excavations of the territory of the Starovalonian kingdom.

Ancient glass production

More and more researchers are inclined to the fact that the glass appeared independently immediately in several places. How it happened - until the mystery. Glass was so valuable material that was kept in the strictest secrecy. Only a few information reached us.

So, the Egyptians melted sand and soda in clay vessels on the open flame. When the ingredients are spreading, they were thrown into ice water for cracking. The resulting pieces - fritters - walked into dust, and then melted again. The technology was named fritting and used several centuries.

Interesting and the fact that the first glass products were completely curly - print, tiny vessels, beads. It is connected with the inability of ancient people to make a flat glass - they simply blown out a variety of forms from the glass masses.

Flat, colorless glass appeared massively in European states only in the XIII century. However, during the excavations of Pompeii, scientists discovered samples of flat braids, which means that the technology was known for a long time.

How did the glass conquered the world?

The first glazing window appeared in the room of the Greek bath in Pompeiy. Its size was a meter for one and a half meters. A little later, small windows appear in the halls for the feast of Greek nobility. And, only from the south side. But this is for men. At the female half of the housing, the windows at that time did not mind at all.

The greatest flourishing glass is experiencing in ancient Rome. It is here that the window appears in the form in which we now know it - placed in a metal frame. Most often from bronze. At the same time, the first "ladies'" mirrors appear, designed for women from among the Roman nobility.

A much greater flourishing glass is experiencing in the Middle Ages in Venice. And it is manufactured in a variety of species - like window glass, mirrors and elegant glassware. It was Venice in the XVI - XVII centuries, it becomes hardly a global glass producer.

At the same time, in the homes of ordinary people, the glass remained a non-disabilities. In the role of window glass here is the usual bubble, which was pulled onto wooden, small frame size.

In Russia, glass begins to be widely used in the reign of the Romanov dynasty. It was then that they begin to decorate the entrances in the form of color stained glass windows and even the facade of buildings. The first glass plant was built in the middle of the XVII century in Voskresensk. Here the glass begins to make glassware and decorate the palaces of nobility with colored glass.

With the Russian emperor, Petra I in Russia there are already six glass plants. However, with a simple people, the window windows still replaces the washes and bubble.

As you know, the glass used by us in everyday life is artificial material. But he has a natural analogue - obsidian. It is a frozen volcanic lava or a melted rock. It was obsidian was used by primitive people for the manufacture of various cutting tools, as well as decorations.

The man-made glass, the history of the origin of which will be considered below, at first there was little difference from natural. It could not boast of any beauty or transparency.

The antique researcher of Pliny Senior leads in his writings that artificial glass appeared thanks to travelers who prepared food on the sandy shore and a piece of natural soda was used as a stand under the boilers. The next day, glass crust was discovered on the outer walls of the boiler. Plania's hypothesis was refuted only in the 20th century. Scientists have proven that it is impossible to pay glass on open fire. However, already several thousand years ago, residents of ancient Egypt and two-frequencies learned to melt the glass in the pits. The temperature in these primitive furnaces was high enough to make a new material from sand, risks and lime. However, the first man-made glass, most likely, was indeed created by chance in the process of production of clay dishes.

Glass - solid, amorphous in its structure. Glasses are natural and artificial, manufactured by man. With deep antiquity, a person learned to use the natural glass as an instrument of labor. Among the natural glasses, which the person used is still in prehistoric times, distinguish tektytes and obsidians. And those and others find in the parking lot of the Stone Age.

Ancient man used natural glasses for making various chop, scrolling, tips for arrows and copies, knives and other labor tools. Tectites were in love with ancient and as amulets.

A man has learned a long time ago and produce glass. At the dawn of human culture in the grinders used to fir the clay pots and heated straw, cane or wood, the first glaze on the walls of these pots gave, melted with not very high temperatures, ash. Stacking from the walls of pots and mixed with sand at the bottom of these pit, the ash gave the first glass masses. Thus, a wake of glass glaze can be considered a native furnace. And, I must say that the ash containing up to 40% alkali remained even until the middle of the 19th century. An important component of the charge at many glass plants, an alkaline appointment to reduce glass melting temperatures. Along with the ash, as a source of alkalis, was used in the 1st century. AD Potash and soda derived from it, implying two main types of extract from different plants. In Egypt, used natural soda.

In addition to ash, the second main component of the glass serves quartz sand. In antiquity, in the early stages of glass glaze, Syrian sand from the Belus River was famous. This sand practically did not contain iron oxides.

In addition to these basic glass-forming components, various additives are used - dyes, silencers and special purposes that give glass to those or other properties.

Many researchers believe that glasswalks first originated in Mesopotamia about 5,000 years ago. In Syria, fragments of glass belonging to 2500 BC were discovered. It is known that in 16-14 centuries. BC e. Glasswater in Egypt was highly developed. Excavations produced by Filliere Petri in Tedy al-Amarne (near FIV) in 189I-1892. The remains of the glasswelt workshop of one of the pharaohs of 18 dynasty. Outlates were discovered fragments of crucibles for glass smelting, broken glass and other items.

At the beginning of our era, the center of glassmodels is transferred to Rome. In times of Nero (54-68 G.N.) The use of glass in Rome so widely spread that a simple glass glass could be checked for a copper coin. A window glass appears in Rome. It was not like our. It was made in a blown way, it was a small disc discs inserted into the rims of wooden or stone lattices. In the literature of those times, a description of the glass cooking process has been preserved. Pliny senior wrote that the finest white sand was abrasion and mixed with 3 soda volumes. The mixture was melted, then transferred to another furnace, where the mass was formed, called the ammoniter plate. Ammonitra again melted in pure white glass. The Roman masters first used soda imported from Thrace, then moved to extract her from algae ash.

He moved to the capital from Rome to Byzantium, to Constantinople, Konstantin translated many artisans into it, including glasswalks.

Significant development in Byzantium reached such a glass production branch as a mosaic. The need for mosaic was huge due to the construction of a large number of temples and especially Sofia Konstantinople, where mosaic as the decor was used very widely.

In 1204g. Crusaders, and among them there were Venetians, they took Constantinople and almost one third of Byzantium territory went to Venice. Favoring masters and their secrets in the east, Venetians begin to actively master the glass case. At the end of the XIII century. On the island of Murano, two km. From Venice, there are already glassmatic workshops.

In the 14-13 centuries, the artistic value of Venetian glass is generally accepted. The flourishing of it falls on 16 V .. it is the finest, purest and very elegant glass. Product forms are extremely diverse. Ryumks, glasses, tableware on the legs are dominated. Along with colorless, stained glass was used,

gold plated. The invention of milliliations - transparent glass with mesh weaves of milk-white threads, even more increased the already worldwide glory of Venetian glass in 16 V .. How much did the fact that when the French King Heinrich III visited Venice, then He complained to all the first masters Murano French nobility.

Only in the 17th century. Venetian glasswater began to go to decay. At this time in the Czech Republic in 1609. Cashpar Lehman was invented by the recipe for massive, solid glass, which received the name of the crystal for resemblance to a mountain crystal. The glass began to add calcium, giving purity and transparency, hardness, greater refractive index and, therefore, the game of light. Czech crystal, or as it is also called Bohemian, at that time allowed to use deep engraving - the carving over the glass. From this time, a new era begins in the history of art glassmodes.

A slightly later in England began to add lead in the glass. Lead crystal has an amazing shine and light effect with a magnificent light game - dispersion. In addition, lead crystal has a beautiful ringing. In 18 V. The production of crystal arises in France - the famous company Bakkara, acting and so-in.

After checking these stories, the archaeologists found out that in the sand of the river Bel contained 14.5 - 18 percent of the lime (calcium carbonate), 3.6 - 5.3 percent of alumina (aluminum oxide) and about 1.5 percent of carbon dioxide magnesium. From a mixture of this sand with soda, a solid glass is obtained.

So, the Phoenicians took ordinary sand, which was rich in their country, and mixed it with sodium bicarbonate - drinking soda. It was mined in the Egyptian soda lakes or received from ash left after the combustion of algae and steppe grass. Alkaline earth component - limestone, marble or chalk were added to this mixture - and then heated all this up to about 700 - 800 degrees. So the bubble, viscous, quickly frozen the mass, from which the glass beads was made or, for example, blown out elegant, transparent vessels.

The Phoenicians were not satisfied with the simple imitation of the Egyptians. Over time, showing incredible fiction and perseverance, they learned to make a transparent glassy mass. You can only guess how much time and labor it was worth it.

The first in the dicks took up glassmodes of the residents of Sidon. It happened relatively late - in the VIII century to our era. By that time, the Egyptian suppliers dominated almost a thousand years in the markets.

However, Pliny senior attributes the invention of glass to the phynicians - the crew of one vessel. It allegedly passed from Egypt with a load of soda. In the area of \u200b\u200bAcido, sailors moored to the shore to dine. However, it was not necessary to find a single stone on which the boiler could be put. Then someone took several pieces of soda from the ship. When they were "melted from the fire, mixed with sand on the shore," then the transparent streams of the new fluid flowed, "there was such an origin of the glass." Many consider this story in fiction. However, according to a number of researchers, there is nothing incredible in it - except the place is wrong. It could have occurred near Mount Karmel, and the time of the invention of the glass is definitely unknown.

At first, the phyniquers were made of glass-covered vessels, decorations and baubles with ornament. Over time, they diversified the production process and began to receive glass of various varieties - from dark and muddy to colorless and transparent. They knew how to give transparent glass any color; It is not fading from it.

In its composition, this glass was close modern, but was distinguished by the ratio of components. Then it contained more alkali and iron oxide, less silica and lime. This reduced the melting point, but worsened quality. The composition of the Phoenician glass was approximately as follows: 60 - 70 percent of silica, 14 - 20 percent of soda, 5 - 10 percent of the lime and various metal oxides. In some glasses, especially opaque red, a lot of lead was detected.

Demand gave birth to an offer. In the largest cities of Phenicia - Tire and Sidone - glass plants grew. Over time, the price of glass has decreased, and it has become an object of luxury into antique consumer goods. If the biblical Job equated glass to gold, saying that the wisdom is not paid neither gold or glass (Job 28, 17), then over time, glassware sweating and metal, and ceramic. The Phoenicians were flooded with all the Mediterranean with glass vessels and bottles, beads and tiles.

Its the highest flourishing is crafting already in the Roman era, when, probably, in Sidon opened a way of blowing glass. It happened in the first century to our era. They were famous for the ability to blow the glass also masters taken and saptians. In Rome and Gaul, this craft was also widespread, because there were many specialists from Sidon.

Several vessels from the douty glass have been preserved marked by the sign of the Master Ennion from Sidon, who worked in Italy at the beginning or middle of the i century AD. For a long time, these vessels were considered the earliest samples. However, in 1970, in the excavations in Jerusalem, a warehouse was discovered with cast and duby glass vessels. They were manufactured at 50 to 40 years before our era. Obviously, the glass of glass appeared somewhat earlier.

According to the stardy of the elder, even the mirrors came up in Sidone. They were mainly round, convex (they were also made of diply glass), with a thin metal lining of tin or lead. Inserted them into the metal frame. Such mirrors were made up to the XVI century, when the Venetians invented tin-mercury amalgam.

It is the famous Venetian Manufactory that continued the traditions of Sidon masters. In the Middle Ages, her successes led to a decline in demand for the Lebanese glass. And yet, even in the era of crusades, glass produced in a dash or Sidone has become in great demand.

"Structures made of glass" - direct heat transfer (DET). Outer side. The possibility of using STOPSOL glass. Types of sunscreen. Noise absorption may be better. Laminated glass. Two-chamber double-glazed windows 4-12-4-12-4 mm Noise absorption 28 dB. Strained glass. Planibel Top N 1.1 4-16-4 mm (argon) U \u003d 1.1 R0 \u003d 0.65.

"Glass production" - in 15-16 centuries. Venetian glass has acquired the leading importance in the decorative and applied art of Europe. The most valuable was the representation of D. I. Mendeleev about the polymer structure of "silica glass". Contemporary glass is obtained on the basis of multicomponent systems. Metal glass. Simultaneously with clarification, homogenization goes - the averaging of glassass in composition.

"Glass" - the usual window glass has 0.97W / (m. Chemical-laboratory glass - glass with high chemical and thermal stability. The greatest thermal conductivity has quartz glasses. Fragility. Optical glass. Elementary is the glass consisting of atoms of one element. The main value in practice belongs to the class of silicate glasses.

"Painting on glass" - 3. The pattern of the pattern is applied with an outlinener. Children's "stained glass paints." Glass painting process. Acrylic paints. Sometimes drying period can be more. 4. Then a synthetic brush or a natural hair brush is applied with a painting. Stained in paints. Paints can be matte or transparent.

"Green Chemistry" - catalytic processes. Section of chemistry. Humanity. Use of auxiliary substances. Selectivity. Auxiliary stages. Reducing the number of stages. Catalytic systems and processes. Energy expenses. Analytical methods. Search for new sources of energy. Raw materials for product. State of aggregation.

"The subject of study of chemistry" - which has changed. Burning fire. Clothing. We live surrounded by chemicals. One substance is a lot of tel. General conclusions. The word "chemistry". Chemical reactions. Transformation of substances. Each body consists entirely of plastic or partially. We argue. How interesting. Ecological Community. Conclusions. Subject of chemistry.

Lesson: Phoenician Maritime

Pedagogical goals: Help familiarize students with the lifestyle and cultural achievements of the Phoenicians; Create conditions for the development of skills to characterize the concept of "colony" in the history of the ancient world, to determine the Phoenician alphabet as a special writing system; Promote the development of the ability to work with the card.

The main content of the topic, concepts and terms : Location and Natural Conditions of Phenicia. The formation of urban-states in Phenicia. Cities: Tir, Bible, Sidon. Phoenicians are the best navigators of the ancient world. International Trade of the Phoenicians, the formation of colonies. Inventions and discoveries of Phoenician artisans: obtaining purple paint, glass manufacture. The invention of the alphabet. Incense, purple paint, colony, alphabet.

During the classes.

1. Organizational moment. Greeting students. Check availability to the lesson.

2. Knowledge control.

Check knowledge of chronology: (chronological dictation)

1. Education of a single state in Egypt (3000 G.D.N.)

2. Hammurapi Right (1792-1750. BC)

3. Turning hikes of TUMOS (1500g. BC)

4. The first people on Earth (2 million years ago)

5. Contemplating a person reasonable (40 thousand years ago)

6. Using Crafts (10 thousand years ago)

7. Connecting writing (5 thousand years ago)

8. Incidently processing metals (9 thousand years ago)

3. Statement of the educational task. Teacher suggests looking at the map and found on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean City of the city: Tir, Bible, Sidon; To read the name of the country with which to get to know this lesson.

4. The assimilation of new knowledge and ways of action. Location and natural conditions of the chickens. Education of state cities ( Teacher's story with the use of a map).

Problem question:

Using the map and the story, determine how the geographical conditions of the country influenced people's classes? Compare the classes of the Phoenicians with the classes of residents of ancient Egypt and Babylonia, specify the general features and differences - on the board

Phenicia is fenced off from anterior Asia by a ridge. The coast here is rocky, and the strip of fertile land is completely narrow, almost unsuitable for agriculture. The country is so small that the inscription on the map Phoenicia Did not fit on land and seem to float in seawater.

The main wealth of the country gave the sea.

Slowing on the ship along the coast, we would see beautiful cities located almost on the shore: Bible, Sidon and Tir. By narrow roads laid along the coast, moved from the north to south and back shopping caravans.

In general, the climate was favorable. Summer has continued from the end of April to the end of October, the winter was short - only three months. During this time, cold rains collapsed on the inhabitants. Air temperature in summer reached 27-31 oh heat; In winter, the cold occurred, which sometimes reached 7 frost, but more often the air was modeled - approximately +5 o C. The most unpleasant phenomenon of nature was Sukhovi, which presented a serious threat to agriculture.

Fertile soil in the china was relatively small, so weakly developed, the horticulture was developed.

Cities and villages were located on the coastline, which was associated with the main classes of the Phoenicians - Sexing, Craft and Trade. The names of the main Phoenicians of cities reflect the geographical conditions of the country.

So, the city was located in the north, which the Greeks called the Bible, in translated mountain. The largest of the Phoenic cities of the Greeks called the TIR, which corresponds to - rock. The third big city was called Sidon, which means fishing City.

The main classes of the population of the Phenicia were trade, craft, navigation and fisheries; These features of the economy were determined by the natural conditions and climate of the country.

The ancient cities of Phenicia.

Scientists are still difficult to recreate the appearance of cities; It is only known that they were found in several rows of massive walls; There were high towers. The shields who covered loopholes, from where the archers were hit by the enemy. Strangers who fell into the city were in the maze of houses and curves of streets, which led to temples and market squares.

(Add.) Phoenician cities were trade centers in front Asia. From their own production products, the Phoenicians were sold, first of all, dried fish, olive oil, cedar forest, walking on the construction of ships. Phenicia was also the center of transit trade. Her famous merchant merchants established links with various countries and peoples.

Craft.

Craft developed in Phoenician cities since ancient times. The kind of glory of the founders, builders, weales - stepped far beyond their native places.

Shipbuilding.

In china, in contrast to Egypt and southern Meternrachia, cedar and oak forests grew. What did it matter? (The Phoenicians were laid out of the logs of durable ships and went to distant navigation). The merchants were brought to sell wool fabrics, glass dishes and other products. In ancient tradition, it is described that the inventors of the glass were the Phoenicians.

Glass.

Once the Phoenician Shopping Ship, which has driven Soda, stuck to the sandy shore. The merchants decided to have lunch, spread the fire, got the bowels, but did not find the stones for which it would be possible to put. Then they instead of stones used the soda soda pieces taken from ships. The fire was strong, the soda melted and mixed with the sand and shells: the jet of transparent liquid flowed from the fire. This liquid and was glass.

It is difficult to say how reliable this story. However, it is known that the glass can in fact be welding from soda, sand and seashells (lime). And the Phoenicians, really, among the first, learned to make a transparent glass.

Produce glass of various varieties - from dark and opaque to colorless and transparent - steel in the dicks. Where did it be used? Glass in ancient times did not insert, as now in window bindings. From it, various decorations, vessels, which were very valued; The glass was sprayed and walls of houses.

The task: Scientists believe that the creation of glass in importance and value can be compared with the discovery of metals, with the invention of clay dishes, with the advent of weaving. Are scientists right? (Like fabric and clay dishes, the glass in the finished form in nature does not exist. His invention is one of the largest in the history of mankind. And nowadays the glass plays a big role in everyday life, each house has window glass and a variety of glass items.)

Purple paint.

In many Phoenician cities, primarily in dash and Sidone, widely developed purple paint mining, Highly appreciated in the countries of the ancient world. How was this dye opened?

Student's story: It is said that one day some kind of Phoenician shell is a herd not far from the sea coast. His dog sprayed a sea snail and returned to the owner with a face painted purple. The shepherd thought that the dog had losing his face with something, and began to wipe the wool with the wool with imaginary blood, but did not find any wound; Wool has acquired a wonderful scarlet color.

Phoenician artisans learned to paint woolen fabrics purple paint. Modern chemical dyes in antiquity did not exist. The paint could be either mineral (extracted from the ground) or vegetable or animal origin. How did the purple paint mined? The Phoenicians dived at the bottom of the sea and got small shells with snails from there. From each one could remove a few drops of thick liquid. It was a purple paint in ancient times. If the paint was kneaded by albeit, the fabric acquired a pink or scarlet color if she was walking - she became a purulent red. Fabrics, painted purple paint, sparkled in the sun, they did not fade and did not learn when washing. The price of purple fabrics was huge, so they were bought only very rich people: kings, priests and military leaders.

Name the inventions of the Phoenicians? (Clear transparent, purple paint)

About the colonies read the tutorial page 72 p.3(Find on the map Phoenician colonies and designate them on the contour card)

Slave worker.

The Phoenicians were skilled artisans and brave navigators, but used the bad glory of greedy and cunning slave workers: it happened, they stole children.

Imagine, Phoenician merchants stuck on the shore and laid off their products. Here are the magnificent purple fabrics, glass beads and bottles with incense, here are products from gold, amber and ivory ... a crowd gathered around: who buys, and who just glazes the beautiful and amazing goods. And the kids are a lot here. "Oh, what glorious boys! - says the merchant, referring to two buddies. - Here you have a cake on honey. Both of you like you, you are so similar on my sons. I will give you my belt ... - The merchant pretends to make it removes the belt. - However, no, I have something better on the ship anything else: Want to get in a small dagger? " Boys willingly go with the Phoenician on the ship. The rest of the merchants instantly collect their goods, raise anchor and the ship sails. Mothers are horrified along the shore, shout, the hair is torn. But they will never see more of their sons. Somewhere in someone else's country, the Phoenicians will sell boys in slavery.

Ancient alphabet.

Phoenician merchants for successful trading needed to record. They met the Egyptian letter and grabbed the head: no, such a letter does not fit us! What is the difficulties of the Egyptian letter?

The Phoenicians met clocks, she also seemed difficult. Than?

Then the Phoenicians created their own letter - created new letter system.

What are the advantages of the Phoenician letters before the writing of Egypt or two-frequencies?

Reading § 4 § 15 pp.73.

What is the lack of the Phoenician alphabet?

C.74 - Design of letters: "G" - Giclee (in Phoenician "camel") does this letter look like this? And on the camel hump?

"D" - Dalet (in Phoenician "Door") - resembled the entrance to the tent.

"M" - MEM (in Phoenician "Water") - Reminded the waves.

Output: The similarity of Russian letters with Phoenician is not by chance: Based on the Phoenician alphabet, Greek was created, and on its basis Russian and many others.

Generalization: All Phoenician letters - consonants, vowels were skipped with a letter. The lack of vowels made it difficult to read.

What is the meaning of the Phoenician alphabet?

5. Consolidation of knowledge and ways of action.

Testing:

1. What an ancient state was located on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea?

( Egypt, Lydia, MiDiy, Phenicia)

2. The secret of manufacturing what substance did an ancient Phoenicians know?

(Powder, paper, glass, porcelain)

3. How many letters in the Phoenician alphabet?

4 . What tree fruits did the Phoenicians eaten?

(Fikus. Palms, Olives, Feichoa)

5. What was the main occupation of the Phoenicians?

(Navigation, trade; agriculture; warfare; winemaking)

6. What city of the Phoenicians founded in North Africa?

(Troy, Alexandria, Bags, Carthage)

7. What did the Greeks borrow from the Phoenicians?

(Maps, Compass, Alphabet, Glass)

8. What an ancient Phoenicians received the famous purple color, walking on staining expensive fabrics?

(From olives, from rare minerals, from sea shells, from plants juice)

9. To ensure that you select the corresponding answer.

a) settlements based in places of parking ships.

b) a written sign corresponding to the sound.

c) fragrant, fragrant substances used for cosmetics.

d) Robber craft, which the Phoenicians were engaged.

(Incense, colony, piracy, letter, sound)

10. To ensure that you select the corresponding answer.

a) The substance used for the manufacture of dishes.

b) the first letter of the Phoenician alphabet.

c) liquely red color.

d) the product obtained from olives.

(Alef, Oil, Glass, Alpha, Purpur)

6. Homework.

§ 15, tasks in the working notebook.

 

Perhaps it will be useful to read: