Motor wheels and nuclear climate control: how the Lunokhod works. Unknown facts about Soviet lunar rovers Russian lunar rovers on the moon

NASA specialists have opened access to a new huge array of photographs taken by the automatic probe Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) - it is now in orbit of the Moon.
Do the pictures prove whether the Americans were on the moon or not?..

There are more than one hundred thousand photographs. On the previous ones, taken from an altitude of only 50 kilometers, enthusiasts found landing modules of almost all American expeditions. From the first, Apollo 11, in 1969, to the last, Apollo 17.

Now, in photographs from LRO, they are looking for equipment left by the USSR - lunar rovers and automatic stations of the Luna series. And they find it.

The image clearly shows the footprints of Lunokhod 2.

The other day, Canadian researcher Phil Stook from the University of Western Ontario reported that he had discovered the missing Soviet Lunokhod. What looked like a real sensation.

Our Lunokhod-1 really disappeared. In 1970, it was delivered by the automatic station Luna-17. After a series of successful experiments to reflect laser pulses sent from the Earth, the self-propelled vehicle seemed to disappear. That is, the place where he stopped in the Sea of Rains region is known for sure. But there are no answers from there.

For some reason, the Americans are trying to find Lunokhod-1 by persistently “scouring” the surface of the Moon with a laser beam. And it is difficult for them to miss - the spot area reaches 25 square kilometers. They don't find anything.

And the Canadian, as it turned out, discovered not the first, but the second device - Lunokhod-2. But he was not lost anywhere, he stood in the Sea of Clarity. Its reflectors are still functional.

Apollo 17 landing site. The runaway crew is represented by exactly the same spot as Lunokhod 2

Unexpected confirmation

Lunokhod 2 arrived with the Luna 21 station in 1973. She landed about 150 kilometers from Apollo 17. And according to one of the legends, the device went to the site where the Americans operated in 1972 and drove their self-propelled carriage.

It seems that Lunokhod-2, equipped with a camera, was supposed to film the equipment left behind by the astronauts. And confirm that they were really there. The USSR still had doubts, although they never officially admitted it.

Our self-propelled vehicle traveled 37 kilometers - this is a record for movement on other celestial bodies. He really could have made it to Apollo 17, but he caught loose soil from the crater rim and overheated.

In the picture, Lunokhod 2 looks like a small dark spot. And if not for the tracks from the wheels, it would probably have been impossible to find the device. Even knowing the coordinates.

The self-propelled vehicle of the Apollo 17 expedition looks just as vague. Although it is larger in size. The similarity - in the photographs - of both units, perhaps, indicates: both of them are on the Moon. Ours, for sure. No one ever doubted this. But the Americans were suspected of falsification. Apparently, in vain. They were on the moon. At least in 1972.

Lunar crew of the Apollo 17 expedition

Soviet station "Luna-20"

Lunokhod 1 was the first of two robotic vehicles to study the Moon as part of the Soviet Lunokhod program. The spacecraft that delivered Lunokhod 1 to the lunar surface was called Luna 17. Lunokhod-1 became the first controlled wheeled robot to operate outside the Earth. The launch date of the apparatus on the Moon is November 17, 1970. Lunokhod 2 was launched three years later.

"Lunokhod" is a transport device, automatically controlled, capable of moving on the Moon and designed to conduct lunar exploration.

When developing and creating the first automatic lunar rover, Soviet scientists and designers faced the need to solve a complex of complex problems. It was necessary to create a completely new type of machine, capable of functioning for a long time in unusual conditions of outer space on the surface of another celestial body.

Main goals:

creation of an optimal engine with high cross-country ability with low weight and energy consumption, ensuring reliable operation and traffic safety;
creation of remote control systems for the movement of the Lunokhod;
ensuring the necessary thermal conditions using a thermal control system that maintains the temperature of the gas in the instrument compartments, the temperature of structural elements and equipment located inside and outside the sealed compartments (in outer space during periods of lunar days and nights), within specified limits;
selection of power sources;
materials for structural elements: development of lubricants and lubrication systems for vacuum conditions and much more.

The scientific equipment of the lunar rover was supposed to provide:

study of the topography of the area;
determination of the chemical composition and physical and mechanical properties of the soil;
study of the radiation situation on the flight route to the Moon and on its surface;
study of X-ray cosmic radiation;
experiments on laser ranging of the Moon.

The first lunar rover - the Soviet “Lunokhod-1” was delivered to the Moon by the “Luna-17” spacecraft and worked on its surface for almost a year (from November 17, 1970 to October 4, 1971).

“Lunokhod-1” consists of two parts: a sealed instrument compartment with equipment and a self-propelled chassis. The mass of Lunokhod-1 is 756 kg, length (with the lid open) 4.42 m, width 2.15 m, height 1.92 m. The instrument compartment is used to accommodate the equipment of on-board systems and protect it from the influence of the external environment in space conditions . It has the shape of a truncated cone with convex upper and lower bottoms. The compartment body is made of magnesium alloys, providing sufficient strength and lightness. The upper bottom of the compartment is used as a radiator-cooler in the thermal control system and is closed with a lid. During the moonlit night, the lid closes the radiator and prevents heat from being removed from the compartment due to thermal radiation from the radiator. During the lunar day, the lid is open, and solar panels located on its inside recharge the batteries that supply the on-board equipment with electricity.

The instrument compartment houses thermal control systems, power supplies, receiving and transmitting devices of the radio complex, devices of the remote control system and electronic converter devices of scientific equipment. In the front part there are: TV camera windows, an electric drive of a movable highly directional antenna, which serves to transmit TV images of the lunar surface to Earth; a low-directional antenna that provides reception of radio commands and transmission of telemetric information, scientific instruments and an optical corner reflector made in France. The following are installed on the left and right sides: 2 panoramic telephoto cameras (in each pair, one of the cameras is structurally combined with a local vertical locator), 4 whip antennas for receiving radio commands from the Earth. An isotope source of thermal energy is used to heat the gas circulating inside the apparatus. Next to it is a device for determining the physical and mechanical properties of lunar soil.

Sharp temperature changes during the change of day and night on the surface of the Moon, as well as a large temperature difference between the parts of the apparatus located on the sunny side and in the shade, made it necessary to develop a special thermal control system. At low temperatures during the lunar night, to heat the instrument compartment, the circulation of coolant gas through the cooling circuit is automatically stopped and the gas is sent to the heating circuit.
The Lunokhod's power supply system consists of solar and chemical buffer batteries, as well as automatic control devices. The solar panel drive is controlled from the Earth; in this case, the cover can be installed at any angle ranging from 0 to 180°, necessary for maximum use of solar radiation.

The onboard radio complex ensures the reception of commands from the Control Center and the transmission of information from the vehicle to the Earth. A number of radio complex systems are used not only when working on the surface of the Moon, but also during the flight from Earth to the Moon. Two TV systems of the Lunokhod are used to solve independent problems. The low-frame television system is designed to transmit to Earth TV images of the terrain necessary for the crew controlling the movement of the lunar rover from the Earth. The possibility and feasibility of using such a system, which is characterized by a lower image transmission rate compared to the broadcast television standard, was dictated by specific lunar conditions. The main one is the slow change of the landscape as the lunar rover moves. The second TV system is used to obtain a panoramic image of the surrounding area and photograph areas of the starry sky, the Sun and the Earth for the purpose of astro-orientation. The system consists of four panoramic telephoto cameras.

The self-propelled chassis is designed to move the rover along the surface of the Moon. Chassis characteristics: number of wheels - 8 (all driven); wheelbase - 170 mm; track - 1600 mm; wheel diameter along the lugs - 510 mm; wheel width - 200 mm. The chassis is designed in such a way that the lunar rover has high maneuverability and operates reliably for a long time with minimal dead weight and electricity consumption. The chassis allows the Lunokhod to move forward (with two speeds) and backward, and to turn in place and while moving. It consists of a chassis (elastic suspension and propulsion), an automation unit, a traffic safety system, a device and a set of sensors for determining the mechanical properties of the soil and assessing the cross-country ability of the chassis. Turning is achieved by varying the speed of rotation of the wheels on the right and left sides and changing the direction of their rotation. Braking is carried out by switching the chassis traction motors to electrodynamic braking mode. To hold the lunar rover on slopes and bring it to a complete stop, electromagnetic-controlled disc brakes are activated. The automation unit controls the movement of the lunar rover using radio commands from the Earth, measures and controls the main parameters of the self-propelled chassis and the automatic operation of instruments for studying the mechanical properties of lunar soil. The traffic safety system ensures automatic stopping of the lunar rover at extreme angles of roll and trim and overload of the electric motors of the wheels. A device for determining the mechanical properties of lunar soil allows you to quickly obtain information about the movement. The distance traveled is determined by the number of revolutions of the driving wheels under ground conditions. To take into account their slipping, a correction is made, determined using a freely rolling ninth wheel, which is lowered to the ground by a special drive and raised to its original position. The vehicle is controlled from the Deep Space Communications Center by a crew consisting of a commander, driver, navigator, operator, and flight engineer.

The driving mode was selected as a result of an assessment of television information and promptly received telemetric data on roll, trim, distance traveled, condition and operating modes of wheel drives. In conditions of space vacuum, radiation, significant temperature changes and difficult terrain along the route, all systems and scientific instruments of the lunar rover functioned normally, ensuring the implementation of both the main and additional programs of scientific research of the Moon and outer space, as well as engineering and design tests.

“Lunokhod-1” examined in detail the lunar surface over an area of 80,000 m2. Using TV systems, more than 200 panoramas and over 20,000 surface images were obtained. The physical and mechanical properties of the surface soil layer were studied at more than 500 points along the route, and its chemical composition was analyzed at 25 points. The distance traveled was 10 km 540 m. The duration of active operation of Lunokhod-1 was 301 days 6 hours 37 minutes; the shutdown was caused by the depletion of its isotope heat source resources. At the end of the work, it was placed on an almost horizontal platform in a position in which the corner reflector ensured long-term laser location of it from the Earth.

On January 16, 1973, using the automatic station “Luna-21,” Lunokhod-2 was delivered to the area of the eastern edge of the Sea of Serenity (the ancient Lemonier crater). The landing area was chosen to obtain new data about the complex junction zone of the lunar “sea” and “continent”. Improvements in the design and on-board systems, as well as the installation of additional instruments and expansion of equipment capabilities, made it possible to significantly increase maneuverability and carry out a large amount of scientific research. Over 5 lunar days, in conditions of difficult terrain, Lunokhod-2 covered a distance of 37 km.

Structure of “Lunokhod-2” (“Luna-21”) (operating time of the device from 01/16/1973 to 05/09/1973)
"Lunokhod-2" ("Luna-21") 1 Magnetometer. 2 Low directional antenna. 3 Highly directional antenna. 4 Antenna pointing mechanism. 5 Solar battery (converts solar radiation energy into electricity to recharge chemical batteries). 6 Hinged lid (closed during movement and during a moonlit night). 7 Panoramic telephoto cameras for horizontal and vertical viewing. 8 Isotope thermal energy source with a reflector and a ninth wheel for measuring the distance traveled (at the rear of the device). 9 Soil intake device (in folded position). 10 Whip antenna. 11 Motor-wheel. 12 Sealed instrument compartment. 13 Soil chemical composition analyzer “Rifma-M” (X-ray spectrometer) in the folded position. 14 Stereoscopic pair of television cameras with hoods and dust covers. 15 Optical corner reflector (made in France) 16 Television camera with hood and dust cover.

Source:Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978.

Russia's lunar program

“After all, in twenty years, one of the three of us will definitely die - either the emir, or the donkey, or me. And then go figure out who knew theology better!” I decided to summarize the information received at numerous conferences, symposiums and from personal conversations. By the end of the year, the Federal Space Program 2016-2025 will be adopted. Whatever is included in this program receives funding. Of course, changes can be made during the course of work, however, they are usually associated with new implementation deadlines, and not with an increase in funding. All plans for the period beyond 2025 are nothing more than “funny pictures”. Just the wishes of scientists, engineers and officials.

At the first stage (this is what is specified in the FKP), our natural satellite is going to be studied only with the help of automatic stations. In 2019, the Luna 25 (or Luna-Glob) probe is scheduled to land on the Boguslavsky crater, which is located in the south polar region of the Moon. Luna 25 is a prototype probe for training. We need to re-learn how to build automatic interplanetary stations, learn to land on the Moon. However, about 20-25 kg of scientific instruments will still be placed on it. Despite the test nature, the mission is unique - for the first time the probe will land in the polar region of the Moon. It was there that orbital neutron detectors discovered traces of hydrogen (read: water ice) in the regolith. And not only in shaded craters (probes will not land there - there is no Sun for solar panels and communication with the Earth), but also nearby. The next device is an orbital one - “Luna-26” (or “Luna-Resurs-1 orbital”). Reconnaissance from orbit, relay and a very interesting experiment LORD (Lunar Orbital Radio Detector). The next station should start in 2021. If something goes wrong, the FKP plans to repeat the mission in 2023. The large lander Luna-27 (or Luna-Resurs-1 landing) is scheduled to land in the south polar region of the Moon in 2023. On board there will be up to 50 kg of instruments, including a European drill for “cryogenic” (so that “volatile” particles do not evaporate from the soil) drilling. They are again considering the possibility of placing a mini-rover on Luna 27. Once upon a time, they were going to put ““ as such a rover. If the 2023 mission is unsuccessful, they plan to repeat the landing in 2025. The last lunar probe in the FCP 2016-2025 is Luna-28 (Luna-Resurs-2 or Luna-Grunt) - a heavy probe (up to 3t ) - is launched, apparently on "Angar A5" with an oxygen-kerosene upper stage DM-03, and serves to deliver soil from the southern polar region of the Moon. "Luna-29" - a large lunar rover with a "cryogenic" drill - is in the wishes scientists, but is absent from the FKP - which means it will be implemented already in the 25th year.

In addition to automatic interplanetary stations, at the first stage of the lunar program, numerous research projects will be carried out on the topic of the lunar transport system and lunar infrastructure. The money for them is deposited in the FKP. Money has also been allocated for the development of a super-heavy rocket. Only for development - not for creation “in metal”!

Flight tests of the new Russian spacecraft PTK NP should begin in 2021. They are also included in the Federal Space Program. In 2021 and 2022, the new spacecraft will fly to the ISS twice in an unmanned version. It is supposed to be launched into orbit using the “Angara A5” (possibly in a shortened version - without URM II).

In 2023, something interesting awaits us - one Angara A5 will launch the PTK NP into orbit, and the second will launch the DM-03 oxygen-kerosene upper stage, equipped with a docking unit. After docking, the bunch will fly around the Moon (without entering lunar orbit).

Also in 2023, it is planned to send to the Moon (in lunar orbit) a prototype tug with low-thrust engines and a large cargo container (cargo - 10 tons) - will it be the famous “nuclear tug” or something equipped with large solar panels? The first option seems more logical, however, in some pictures you can see the second - with solar panels. The prototype will have a capacity of 0.3-0.5 MW - 2-3 times less than a megawatt complex.

The tug will drag the container to the Moon for two whole years. As cargo - either a module of a lunar orbital station or an automatic prototype of a manned landing vehicle.

In 2024, the PTK NP should go into space for the first time in a manned version and deliver cosmonauts to the ISS or to the so-called PPOI - a promising manned orbital infrastructure consisting of one scientific and energy module, a “kolobok” module, an inflatable habitable module, a slipway module and one or two free-flying OKA-T-2 modules.

And so - second half of 2024 - for the first time - a manned flight around the Moon by Russian cosmonauts. Again two Hangars A5 and DM-03 for acceleration to the Moon. The flyby will be repeated in 2025.

Then the FKP ends and not just dreams, but real fantasies begin. In 2027, a super-heavy rocket should begin flying with a payload in low Earth orbit of about 80 (or even 90) tons. In the first launch, it will send an unmanned PTK NP into lunar orbit.

At the end of 2027, a large megawatt (or even more powerful!) tug with low-thrust engines should bring a cargo weighing 20 tons into lunar orbit in 7-8 months. Moreover, the tug itself is launched by a super-heavy rocket, and the cargo by “Angara A5”. As cargo - an orbital station module or a heavy probe/landing scientific platform.

In 2028, a landing module for a manned expedition should be launched to the Moon on a super-heavy rocket. In 2029, the PTK NP with its crew will go to it. But the two spacecraft will dock in near-lunar orbit - but the crew will not land on the Moon - this flight is only a rehearsal for the expedition.

It is interesting that from the 28th to the 30th it is planned to implement the “Moon - Orbit” program. A reusable takeoff and landing probe will be sent to the Moon, and a fuel tanker will be sent to lunar orbit. The probe will be able to deliver soil samples from the surface to the PTK NP (which is in lunar orbit).

In 2030, the second landing module will launch, and a little later - the PTK NP with a crew. Russian cosmonauts will set foot on the lunar surface for the first time - 60 years after the Americans!

In parallel with manned expeditions, it is planned to begin the deployment of a so-called “lunar test site” in the south polar region of the Moon, which will include automatic scientific instruments, telescopes, prototypes of devices for using lunar resources, etc. The test site will be visited - once a year, astronauts will fly there for a couple of weeks to change photographic plates and repair equipment.

Construction of the base is planned for the period after 2040, a flight to Mars (based on lunar experience and lunar resources) - in the 50s. Before the 50s, it is planned to deliver soil from Phobos (already to the FKP - before the 25th) and Mars (~ 30-35), create an assembly complex at the Lagrange point for reusable ships that will fly along the Earth-Mars route, build a fleet “nuclear tugs” - the electrical power of the reactors of the Martian complex is from 4 MW and above.

This is what, according to the designers of RSC Energia, the lunar base should look like.

Overall, something resembling a strategy is finally presented. True, the timing is absolutely insane - the 30th year is very far away. Linking the program to the heavy PTK NP and the super-heavy rocket - which does not exist and will not exist for another 10-15 years. Money for its creation (not development, but creation) is not included in the FCP 2016-2025.

The combination of humans and automata is not thought out at all (where is the control of rovers from orbit without signal delay, for example?). And the automatic missions themselves until 2025 are not very interesting (even normal lunar rovers are not planned, not to mention lunar rovers). The lunar orbital station appears in the plans and then disappears. In the “extreme” version, it seems that it was abandoned after all. The “nuclear tug”, the pride of Russia, is not a key element of the program.

Again, on two chairs - this is not a “flag on the Moon at any cost” (everything is taking too long - the state will have a desire to “jump out of the lunar train, which is crawling every now and then”) and not the Moon is a resource base (there is no sensible reusable lunar transport system , fuel/energy generation from local resources is not stated as a priority).

Since no one has canceled the principle of “criticizing - suggesting”, I present to your attention :) The first manned launches to the Moon within the framework of our proposal are planned for 2022. And this is a very realistic timeframe - if the country’s leadership shows political will. .

Selenokhod- a project to study the Moon using a landing module and a lunar rover, developed by a Russian team as part of the Google Lunar X PRIZE competition since October 2007. Initially, the weight of the lunar rover was 15 kg, but during the development process it dropped to 5. On May 1, 2013, the first prototype of the lunar rover was presented and tested at the American base MRDS (Mars Desert Research Station), simulating the landscape conditions of Mars, somewhat similar to the lunar ones. On December 18, 2013, the Selenokhod project was closed due to the lack of sponsors and investors.

November 17 marks 40 years since the first lunar self-propelled vehicle, Lunokhod-1, was delivered to the Moon.

On November 17, 1970, the Soviet automatic station "Luna-17" delivered to the surface of the Moon the self-propelled vehicle "Lunokhod-1", intended for comprehensive studies of the lunar surface.

The creation and launch of a lunar self-propelled vehicle became an important stage in the study of the Moon. The idea of creating a lunar rover was born in 1965 at OKB-1 (now RSC Energia named after S.P. Korolev). Within the framework of the Soviet lunar expedition, the Lunokhod was given an important place. Two lunar rovers were supposed to examine in detail the proposed lunar landing areas and act as radio beacons during the landing of the lunar ship. It was planned to use the lunar rover to transport the astronaut on the lunar surface.

The creation of the lunar rover was entrusted to the Machine-Building Plant named after. S.A. Lavochkin (now NPO named after S.A. Lavochkin) and VNII-100 (now OJSC VNIITransmash).

In accordance with the approved cooperation, the Machine-Building Plant named after S.A. Lavochkin was responsible for the creation of the entire space complex, including the creation of the lunar rover, and VNII-100 was responsible for the creation of a self-propelled chassis with an automatic motion control unit and a traffic safety system.

The preliminary design of the lunar rover was approved in the fall of 1966. By the end of 1967, all design documentation was ready.

The designed automatic self-propelled vehicle "Lunokhod-1" was a hybrid of a spacecraft and an all-terrain vehicle. It consisted of two main parts: an eight-wheeled chassis and a sealed instrument container.

Each of the 8 wheels of the chassis was driven and had an electric motor located in the wheel hub. In addition to the service systems, the instrument container of the lunar rover contained scientific equipment: a device for analyzing the chemical composition of lunar soil, a device for studying the mechanical properties of soil, radiometric equipment, an X-ray telescope and a French-made laser corner reflector for point-by-point distance measurement. The container had the shape of a truncated cone, and the upper base of the cone, which served as a radiator-cooler for heat release, had a larger diameter than the lower one. During the moonlit night, the radiator was closed with a lid.

The inner surface of the cover was covered with solar cells, which ensured recharging of the battery during the lunar day. In the operating position, the solar panel could be located at different angles within 0-180 degrees in order to optimally use the energy of the Sun at its different heights above the lunar horizon.

The solar battery and chemical batteries working in conjunction with it were used to supply electricity to numerous units and scientific instruments of the lunar rover.

In the front part of the instrument compartment there were windows of television cameras designed to control the movement of the lunar rover and transmit to Earth panoramas of the lunar surface and part of the starry sky, the Sun and the Earth.

The total mass of the lunar rover was 756 kg, its length with the solar battery cover open was 4.42 m, width 2.15 m, height 1.92 m. It was designed for 3 months of operation on the lunar surface.

On November 10, 1970, a three-stage Proton-K launch vehicle launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, which launched the Luna-17 automatic station with the Lunokhod-1 automatic self-propelled vehicle into an intermediate circular near-Earth orbit.

Having completed an incomplete orbit around the Earth, the upper stage put the station on a flight path to the Moon. On November 12 and 14, planned corrections to the flight trajectory were carried out. On November 15, the station entered lunar orbit. On November 16, flight path corrections were made again. On November 17, 1970, at 6 hours 46 minutes 50 seconds (Moscow time), the Luna-17 station safely landed in the Sea of Rains on the Moon. It took two and a half hours to inspect the landing site using telephotometers and deploy the ramps. After analyzing the surrounding situation, a command was issued, and on November 17 at 9:28 a.m., the Lunokhod-1 self-propelled vehicle slid onto the lunar soil.

The Lunokhod was controlled remotely from Earth from the Center for Deep Space Communications. A special crew was prepared to control it, which included a commander, driver, navigator, operator and flight engineer. For the crew, military personnel were selected who had no experience in driving vehicles, including mopeds, so that earthly experience would not dominate when working with the lunar rover.

The selected officers underwent a medical examination almost the same as cosmonauts, theoretical training and practical training at a special lunodrome in Crimea, which was identical to the lunar terrain with depressions, craters, faults, and a scattering of stones of various sizes.

The Lunokhod crew, receiving lunar television images and telemetric information on Earth, used a specialized control panel to issue commands to the Lunokhod.

Remote control of the Lunokhod's movement had specific features due to the operator's lack of perception of the movement process, delays in the reception and transmission of television image commands and telemetric information, and the dependence of the mobility characteristics of the self-propelled chassis on movement conditions (relief and soil properties). This obliged the crew to anticipate with some advance the possible direction of movement and obstacles in the path of the lunar rover.

Throughout the first lunar day, the crew of the lunar rover adjusted to the unusual television images: the picture from the Moon was very contrasting, without penumbra.

The device was controlled in turns, the crews changed every two hours. Initially, longer sessions were planned, but practice showed that after two hours of work the crew was completely “exhausted.”

During the first lunar day, the landing area of the Luna-17 station was studied. At the same time, the Lunokhod systems were tested and the crew gained driving experience.

For the first three months, in addition to studying the lunar surface, Lunokhod-1 also carried out an application program: in preparation for the upcoming manned flight, it practiced searching for the landing area for the lunar cabin.

On February 20, 1971, at the end of the 4th lunar day, the initial three-month work program of the lunar rover was completed. An analysis of the state and operation of on-board systems showed the possibility of continuing the active functioning of the automatic apparatus on the lunar surface. For this purpose, an additional program for the operation of the lunar rover was drawn up.

The successful operation of the spacecraft lasted 10.5 months. During this time, Lunokhod-1 traveled 10,540 m, transmitted 200 telephotometric panoramas and about 20 thousand low-frame television images to Earth. During the survey, stereoscopic images of the most interesting features of the relief were obtained, allowing for a detailed study of their structure.

Lunokhod-1 regularly carried out measurements of the physical and mechanical properties of the lunar soil, as well as chemical analysis of the surface layer of the lunar soil. He measured the magnetic field of various parts of the lunar surface.

Laser ranging from the Earth of the French reflector installed on the lunar rover made it possible to measure the distance from the Earth to the Moon with an accuracy of 3 m.

On September 15, 1971, at the onset of the eleventh lunar night, the temperature inside the sealed container of the lunar rover began to drop, as the resource of the isotope heat source in the night heating system was exhausted. On September 30, the 12th lunar day arrived at the lunar rover’s site, but the device never made contact. All attempts to contact him were stopped on October 4, 1971.

The total time of active operation of the lunar rover (301 days 6 hours 57 minutes) was more than 3 times greater than that specified in the technical specifications.

Lunokhod 1 remained on the Moon. Its exact location was unknown to scientists for a long time. Almost 40 years later, a team of physicists led by Professor Tom Murphy from the University of California, San Diego, found Lunokhod 1 in images taken by the American Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) and used it for a scientific experiment to find inconsistencies in the General Theory of Relativity developed by Albert Einstein. For this study, scientists needed to measure the Moon's orbit to the nearest millimeter, which is done using laser beams.

On April 22, 2010, American scientists were able to “grope” the corner reflector of the Soviet apparatus using a laser beam sent through the 3.5-meter telescope at the Apache Point Observatory in New Mexico (USA) and receive about 2 thousand photons reflected “ Lunokhod-1".

The material was prepared based on information from open sources

On November 17, 1970, the Luna-17 automatic station delivered the world's first planetary rover, Lunokhod-1, to the surface of the Moon. USSR scientists successfully implemented this program and took another step not only in the race with the USA, but also in the study of the Universe.

"Lunokhod-0"

Oddly enough, Lunokhod-1 is not the first lunar rover to launch from the surface of the Earth. The path to the Moon was long and difficult. By trial and error, Soviet scientists paved the way to space. Indeed, it’s always hard for pioneers! Tsiolkovsky also dreamed of a “lunar carriage” that would move on its own on the Moon and make discoveries. The great scientist looked into the water! – On February 19, 1969, the Proton launch vehicle, which is still used to obtain the first cosmic speed necessary to enter orbit, was launched in order to send an interplanetary station into outer space. But during acceleration, the head fairing that covered the lunar rover began to collapse under the influence of friction and high temperatures - debris fell into the fuel tank, which led to an explosion and the complete destruction of the unique rover. This project was called "Lunokhod-0".

"Korolevsky" lunar rover

But even Lunokhod-0 was not the first. The design of the device, which was supposed to move on the Moon like a radio-controlled car, began in the early 1960s. The space race with the United States, which started in 1957, spurred Soviet scientists to bold work on complex projects. The planetary rover program was taken up by the most authoritative design bureau - the design bureau of Sergei Pavlovich Korolev. Back then, they didn’t yet know what the surface of the Moon was like: was it solid or covered with a centuries-old layer of dust? That is, first it was necessary to design the method of movement itself, and only then move directly to the apparatus. After much searching, we decided to focus on a hard surface and make the chassis of the lunar vehicle tracked. This was done by VNII-100 (later VNII TransMash), which specialized in the manufacture of tank chassis - the project was led by Alexander Leonovich Kemurdzhian. The “Korolevsky” (as it was later called) lunar rover resembled in its appearance a shiny metal turtle on tracks - with a “shell” in the form of a hemisphere and straight metal fields below, like the rings of Saturn. Looking at this lunar rover, it becomes a little sad that it was not destined to fulfill its purpose.

World famous lunar rover Babakin

In 1965, due to the extreme workload of the manned lunar program, Sergei Pavlovich transferred the automatic lunar program to Georgy Nikolaevich Babakin at the design bureau of the Khimki Machine-Building Plant named after S.A. Lavochkina. Korolev made this decision with a heavy heart. He was used to being the first in his business, but even his genius could not cope with the colossal amount of work alone, so it was wise to divide the work. It should be noted that Babakin coped with the task brilliantly! It was partly to his advantage that in 1966, the automatic interplanetary station Luna-9 made a soft landing on Selena, and Soviet scientists finally received an accurate understanding of the surface of the Earth’s natural satellite. After this, adjustments were made to the lunar rover design, the chassis was changed, and the entire appearance underwent significant changes. Babakin's Lunokhod met with rave reviews from all over the world - both among scientists and ordinary people. Hardly any media in the world has ignored this brilliant invention. It seems that even now – in a photograph from a Soviet magazine – the lunar rover stands before our eyes, like a smart robot in the form of a large pan on wheels with many intricate antennas.

But what is he like?

The size of the lunar rover is comparable to a modern passenger car, but this is where the similarities end and the differences begin. The lunar rover has eight wheels, and each of them has its own drive, which provided the device with all-terrain qualities. The Lunokhod could move forward and backward at two speeds and make turns in place and while moving. The instrument compartment (in the “pan”) housed the equipment of the on-board systems. The solar panel opened up like a piano lid during the day and closed at night. It provided recharging for all systems. A radioisotope heat source (using radioactive decay) heated the equipment in the dark, when the temperature dropped from +120 degrees to -170. By the way, 1 lunar day is equal to 24 earthly days. The Lunokhod was intended to study the chemical composition and properties of lunar soil, as well as radioactive and X-ray cosmic radiation. The device was equipped with two television cameras (one backup), four telephotometers, X-ray and radiation measuring instruments, a highly directional antenna (discussed later) and other cunning equipment.

"Lunokhod-1", or a non-children's radio-controlled toy

We will not go into details - this is a topic for a separate article - but one way or another, Lunokhod 1 ended up on Selene. An automatic station took him there, that is, there were no people there, and the lunar machine had to be controlled from Earth. Each crew consisted of five people: commander, driver, flight engineer, navigator and highly directional antenna operator. The latter needed to ensure that the antenna always “looked” at the Earth, providing radio communication with the lunar rover. There are approximately 400,000 km between the Earth and the Moon and the radio signal, with which it was possible to correct the movement of the device, traveled this distance in 1.5 seconds, and the image from the Moon was formed - depending on the landscape - from 3 to 20 seconds. So it turned out that while the image was being formed, the lunar rover continued to move, and after the image appeared, the crew could detect their vehicle already in the crater. Due to the great tension, the crews replaced each other every two hours.
Thus, Lunokhod-1, designed for 3 earthly months of operation, worked on the Moon for 301 days. During this time, he traveled 10,540 meters, examined 80,000 square meters, transmitted many photographs and panoramas, and so on. As a result, the radioisotope heat source exhausted its resource and the lunar rover “froze.”

"Lunokhod-2"

The successes of Lunokhod-1 inspired the implementation of the new space program Lunokhod-2. The new project was almost no different in appearance from its predecessor, but was improved, and on January 15, 1973, the Luna-21 spacecraft delivered it to Selena. Unfortunately, the lunar rover lasted only 4 earthly months, but during this time it managed to travel 42 km and conduct hundreds of measurements and experiments.
Let's give the floor to the driver of the crew, Vyacheslav Georgievich Dovgan: “The story with the second one turned out to be stupid. He had already been on the Earth's satellite for four months. On May 9 I took the helm. We landed in a crater, the navigation system failed. How to get out? We have found ourselves in similar situations more than once. Then they simply covered the solar panels and got out. And then they ordered us not to close it and to get out. They say, we close it, and there will be no pumping of heat from the lunar rover, the instruments will overheat. We tried to drive out and hit the lunar soil. And the lunar dust is so sticky... The Lunokhod stopped receiving solar energy recharging in the required amount and gradually lost power. On May 11, there was no longer a signal from the lunar rover.”

"Lunokhod-3"

Unfortunately, after the triumph of Lunokhod-2 and another expedition, Luna-24, the Moon was forgotten for a long time. The problem was that her research, unfortunately, was dominated not by scientific, but by political aspirations. But preparations for the launch of the new unique self-propelled vehicle “Lunokhod-3” had already been completed, and the crews who had gained invaluable experience in previous expeditions were preparing to pilot it among the lunar craters. This machine, which absorbed all the best qualities of its predecessors, had on board the most advanced technical equipment and the latest scientific instruments in those years. What was the cost of a rotating stereo camera, the likes of which are now fashionable to be called 3D. Now “Lunokhod-3” is just an exhibit of the museum of the NPO named after S.A. Lavochkina. Unfair fate!