Weighing the weight on the scales is a measurement. True on loads on the axis of trucks. How and why measure loads and axis? Units of power. Communication between the strength of gravity and body weight

Unmistakable measurement and timely registration of weight-dimensional characteristics (VGH) of goods at different stages of their processing are extremely important for the highly efficient operation of any warehouse. VGH is based on the basis for calculating such important parameters, such as the optimal use of warehouse space, the maximum loading of vehicles (TC) and, most importantly, the error-free billing for transportation by transport companies. Neglecting such information or errors at the measurement stage can cause the growth of operating expenses or lost profits.

Benefits of using automatic measurement systems VGH

Automated Measurement Systems (SAI) VGH cargo differ in the size of the measured cargo, bandwidth, installation options, may allow measuring the cargo in statics or during the conveyor movement.

The potential customers of Sai VGH are logistics and transport companies, distribution centers, warehouses of responsible storage, distributors, 3PL and 4PL operators and manufacturers of oversized goods.

Let us dwell in more detail on the main applied logistics and warehouse tasks, solved with the help of static, dynamic and portal SAI VGH cargo.

Usually, the question of the modernization of warehouses occurs, if necessary, increase their throughput, without cycling additional areas. Modernization of warehouses using automated systems in such precision processes as the measurement of VGH, along with the use of conveyor and sorting lines, can repeatedly increase the warehouse power.

Automatic registration systems VGH in the Acceptance Zone allow:

• instantly identify the cargo;
• get rid of manual data entry, which gives an increase in overall performance;
• automate the billing process;
• get rid of various operating mistakes, including the problems of theft.

Determining the depths and excess of goods in the shipment zone is carried out by comparing the actual volume and weight of the shipped goods and its program analogues. A full compliance between the order and the shipped to the customer is one of the priority tasks for companies working in the field of intralogistics, and allows you to maintain a reputation of a reliable supplier.

Sharing SAI VGH and analytical power management systems (Warehouse Management System, WMS) in stock allows you:

• ensure the optimal turnover of cargo;
• optimize the filling of the vehicle, eliminate its overload and plan the safe transport of oversized cargo;
• increase the useful warehouse area (so, to unload staging spaces, first of all, it is advisable to export large loads);
• optimize storage (in order to exclude, for example, shipping and hanging it from pallet, etc.).

In addition, the system customer receives a visual display of the loading of the warehouse online, including the arrival / consumption of goods and the loading of each TC.

Overview of automated measurement systems VGH cargo

Sai VGH differ depending on the dimensions and the form of goods, for example: only cubic objects; pallet; objects of any form (table).

The model range of systems is in a wide range of the range, and the presence of additional options and a wide selection of installation options (ceiling, wall, free design, mobile) allow you to choose a solution for any logistics tasks. Consider the possibilities of the Sai VGX presented in the table in detail.

Cargo measurement in statics

SENSOTEC VOLUMEONE (Russia)

Fig. 1. Sensotec VolumeOne

The industrial system of Sensotec Volumeone (Fig. 1) perfectly proven itself as a system of stable measurement of VGH cargo of cubic shape. In the current economic situation in the country, the shift of emphsis towards Russian production allowed her to occupy a niche of the budget decision on the domestic market.

Sensotec Volumeone is designed to carry out manual acceptance of cargo and easily integrated into analytical management systems. The sender puts the goods on the measuring table, and the system automatically reads the barcode, processes and the system automatically processes and transmits the data received to WMS. The system collects the following analytical data: the total number of measurements; the number of erroneous measurements; System workload schedule during the day; specific time for measurements; Performance, etc. Connection is carried out by RS-232, power supply from 220 V or batteries (12 V).

Additional modules and capabilities of SENSOTEC VOLUMEONEOONE:

• i / O port to connect the label printer;
• wireless connection of the barcode reader (Bluetooth);
• color HMI panel for autonomous operation;
• output to the display of battery charge information;
• indication of the status of the system;
• sound alarm on system overload.

Today, the main consumers of the system are online stores, wholesale retail warehouses, carriers, freight forwarding and courier services.

Fig. 2. ExpressCube 165r.

ExpressCube 165r / 265r, ExpressCube 480R (Canada)

ExpressCube 165R systems (Fig. 2) have greatly proven themselves among economical solutions for measuring VGH objects of small cubic. Operating Modes - through the Local Control System (ExpressCube Controller) and an external PC that allows you to integrate ExpressCube in the available WMS.

Additional technical characteristics:

• measurement time - 2 C;
• the principle of measurement - photoelectric;
• connection - USB, Serial (RS-232, RS-422);
• visualization of results - LCD screen (optional);
• power supply - 95-250 B of alternating current, 50-60 Hz;
• range of operating temperatures -10 ... + 40 ° C.

Apache Parcel 510/520 Static (Germany)

Apache Parcel 510/520 Static Systems AKL-TEC has an average bandwidth of up to 500 units of cargo per hour and provide all the necessary data for cargo calculations or registration of transport documentation with one touch of a button. Each system consists of a laser scanner to determine the VGH, a solid static weighing system and manual devices for reading barcodes combined into a strong mechanical package.

The principle of operation of systems is the following. The scanning head installed on the linear axis with the built-in estimate function moves above the fixed object, measures it, generates a scanning plane and due to a linear movement along the object receives its three-dimensional model and provides information about length, height and width of cubic cargo. This allows you to securely determine the dimensions of the cargo with dimensions of at least 50? 50? 50 mm.

Used in the system the principle of operation ensures its high reliability. For example, the deviation from horizontal by ± 5 ° will not result in erroneous indicators. The entire measurement process starts when scanning a barcode on the object. As soon as the manual scanner reads the actual code, the system uses the result of weighing to start the actuator of the linear axis and measure the volume of the object.

Apache systems can be equipped with both one scanner (510 static) to measure cubic objects and two scanners (520 Static), to measure objects of incorrect shape.

Integration is carried out through the AKL Apache Cubidata software module. The compact controller supports RS-232, TCP / IP, ODBC, XML, etc. interfaces.

Dynamic measurement of cargo

Apache Conveyor Checker, Parcel Conveyor and Apache Conveyor

Conveyor systems for measuring dimensions and weight AKL-TEC (Germany) are determined by VGH and the volume of packaging of arbitrary shape in motion, without stopping the conveyor. Additional Apache feature also allows you to take pictures of the object. During the movement of the object, its full 3D image is created, which is used by the volume determination system (VMS), and also applies when determining the other basic characteristics of goods, such as their length, width, height and actual volume.

Systems can be equipped :

• one laser scanner with visible red light 650 nm (Apache Parcel Conveyor Checker) to measure only cubic objects;
• two scanners (Apache Parcel Conveyor) to measure objects of arbitrary shape;
• two infrared scanners for measuring palletized cargo (Apache Conveyor).

Cargo identification is performed by manual or automatic barcode reading, as well as using transponders (RFID) or direct connection to the control system of the conveyor.

After measuring and registering the Apache system, the data obtained is transmitted to the analytical warehouse management systems for further processing through the appropriate interfaces. Data registration is performed continuously at the speed of cargo movement? 2 m / s (Apache Conveyor Checker) and? 3 m / s (Apache Parcel Conveyor). Integration - with standard transporters for pallets, floor continuous conveyor systems using lifting lifts with low rise platforms.

Portal cargo measurement systems

Apache Portal

Fig. 3. Measurement of VGH using Apache Portal Movable

The Apache Portal system is a means of checking cargo, equipped with measuring tools, weighing and photographing. The system is available in the stationary (Apache Portal) or mobile version (Apache Portal Movable, Fig. 3), or in the Multi-Zone version (measurement zones can be selected freely, and the goods on them are to be processed independently of each other).

The principle of work is next. The cargo moves to the checkpoint using a forklift, trolleys for pallets or electronic forklift. Then the cargo is placed on the weighing platform, which is subjected to integrated measurements of the Apache Portal system due to the load of two infrared scanners mounted on two linear guides. Movement is monitored by an incremental movement sensor. Missile scanning is performed all over. Vg object, as well as its photos are automatically displayed, saved and documented. It is possible to measure only opaque objects and objects with constant sizes / constant form.

A wide selection of installation options (ceiling, wall or free design), ease of operation and availability of additional software and hardware modules, as well as specially developed interfaces for external systems guarantee successful integration of the RORTAL in any warehouse management system (WMS).

The charter of inland water transport requires the mandatory definition and indication in the overhead mass of the cargo party when taking it to transportation. This is necessary in order to accurately establish how much cargo is taken and must be handed over to the recipient, which makes it possible to establish the responsibility of transport for the safety of transportation, correctly charge the transport payments, rationally use the load capacity and cargo capacity, as well as for quantitative traffic.

Ways to determine the mass of the cargo party

In order to solve this issue, there were no liberations, in Article 64-66 of the "Charter of the Inland Water Transport", the procedure and methods for determining the mass of the cargo party were established.

In accordance with the norms, all methods are divided into 3 groups:

• determining the mass of the cargo party weighing;
• settlement methods;
• according to the sender.

A number of factors affect the choice of method:

• clause;
• type type;
• way of carriage;
• an affiliation of the berth, which takes the cargo to transport.

It should be noted that when choosing a method, the basic principle should be followed: the weight of the cargo batch must be determined by the way that it can be defined at the destination or transshipment with one type of transport to another. This is due to two factors.

First, the method of determining the mass of the cargo batch at the point of departure and destination should be the same. Only under this condition can be judged on the presence or absence of partial loss of cargo on the way, because Various methods for determining the mass may not give identical results, which will lead to claims from the cargo owner.

Secondly, the departure port chooses the method based on the technical capabilities of the destination port. This is determined by the fact that the destination ports are usually peripheral and their technical capabilities are lower than the technical capabilities of the departure ports.

Determining the mass of the cargo party weighing

Weighing - The most accurate and most expensive way to determine the mass of the cargo batch, increasing the downtime of the fleet by 15-20%. In accordance with Art. 50 UVTC, to determine the mass of cargo on the berths of general and unwinding, the required amount of scales installed in the board of the vessel should be located, and on the elevators - in the chain of the mechanization of overload work.

This method applies in all cases of the carriage of bread cargoes (except in standard containers), salts transported by bulk, coal and other bulk goods, during the transport of mass, when there is doubt in the correctness, and in some other cases. The weight of the cargo batch by weighing is determined in all cases, if the loading is carried out on the berths of not common, and the port, if the reception and loading of the cargo is carried out on shared berths.

Transport organizations are the right (Art. 65 UVTC) to check the mass of the cargo defined by the sender. In the case when a cargo is accepted for transportation, which must then be transmitted to another transport with a mass test, then such a right becomes the responsibility of the carrier.

For weighing, various types of scales can be used: commodity, automotive, carriage, bunker. The choice of weights for each pier is determined by technical equipment and traffic rules. The amount of scales for each pier is determined by the calculation depending on their performance. A permissible error when weighing should be no more than 0.1%.

It should be noted that when determining the mass of cargo weighing, the basic principle must be followed: the scales at the point of departure and destination must be the same. This is due to the fact that different types of scales give different errors.

Since weighing is a time-consuming and expensive method, therefore, in practice, calculated ways of determining the mass of cargo are more often used.

Determination of the mass of the batch of cargo by the standard mass of individual cargo places

Until 1956, the mass of the cargo party was determined for all cargo only by weighing. Since 1956, work is underway to standardize the containers and therefore some types of products are produced in the packaging of standard mass (sugar, flour, cereals, etc.). According to Article 65 of UVTC, cargoes in the packaging of the standard mass when taking them to transportation are not weighed. The mass of the cargo batch is defined as a product of a mass of one cargo space for the number of places.

Q n \u003d n n · q cm, kg,

where Q n is the mass of the batch of cargo, kg;
N n - the number of places in the batch of cargo, units;
q cm is the standard mass of one cargo place, kg;
The invoice is recorded: "According to the standard".

By stencil or non-standard mass of individual cargo places

When the cargo is transported in a non-standard container (shoes, clothing, equipment, machines, etc.), then the mass of the cargo batch is defined as the sum of the mass of each place.

Q n \u003d Σ q i tr. , kg,

where q i tr. - The mass of each place is applied to the paint directly on the container or various tags, fortified on every cargo place.

In transport documents, the list of goods is given in the graph "The name of the cargo" and their mass is indicated, then the total mass in the Count "Mass Party" is added and recorded and the mark is made: "on stencil".

On the conditional mass of individual cargo places

Mass of some specific goods (cars, furniture, animals, plants, etc.) is taken to transport without weighing on the conditional mass of individual cargo places. This is due to the fact that the actual mass of this category of goods is not expedient to determine due to their relatively small mass with a significant occupying volume, as well as due to the fact that during the transportation process, their mass decreases (animals).

The conditional mass is greater than the actual mass and thus allows to obtain increased trade payments, corresponding to the actual cost of transportation of these goods.

In order to determine the mass of the cargo batch in this method, the conditional mass is defined, approved in Appendix No. 5 of the Price List 14-01. Formula for determining the mass of the batch of cargo:

Q n \u003d n · Q SL. , kg,

where Q SL. - Mass of one place, kg;
n - the number of places, units;
In transport documents, "conditionally" is recorded.

Determining the mass of the batch of cargo by chaff

According to the survey and the average density (volume mass), we determine the mass of bulk and forest cargo. As a result of the stack measurement, the volume of the stack is obtained. The measurement can be made both on the shore and in the truma of the vessel. The mass is determined by multiplying the volume of stacks found as a result of the volume of the volume of stacks on its volumetric mass.

Q n \u003d v · γ, kg,

where γ is the density of cargo, t / m 3;
V is the volume of the stack, m 3.

Translation of volumetric measures into mass measures for individual delivery of cargo is given in Appendix No. 6 of the Price List 14-01.

In determining the mass of forest cargo, 1 m 3 of dense wood is taken for the bulk of the round forest and sawn timber, for the volumetric measure of the mining rack and fire vessels - the share cubic meter.

If the volume of forest cargo is installed in dense wood, their mass is determined by the formula:

Q n \u003d γ p · V pl. , t,

where γ pl - the density of dense wood T / m 3;
V pl - the volume of dense wood, m 3.

If the volume of forest cargo is installed in the rudder extent, their mass is determined by the formula:

Q n \u003d K SKL: Γ PL · V SKL, T,

where to SKL \u003d 0.64 is the coefficient of translating the folding cubic meters to cubic meters of dense wood;
V SKL - Folding volume of wood, m 3.

If raw wood and firewood are placed in the current navigation and loaded to the vessel from the water, round forest and sawn timber after the first October of the previous year.

When transporting sand and sandy-gravel mixture in ships adapted for hydromechanized loading and unloading, the mass is determined, based on the average height of the unfilled part of the bunker; They produce ten measurements from the edge of the bunker to the surface of the cargo (H i) for each board at equal intervals:

h c p \u003d 20 Σ h i i - l 20, m

Then you can determine the height of the cargo and its volume.

h r \u003d h σ - h cp, m,

where H σ is the height of the bunker;
h R - the height of the cargo, m;
In traditional documents in the column "The method of determining the mass" is recorded "on the vomor of stacks."

By sediment of the ship

This method determines the mass of bulk and bulk cargo (except for grain, the mass of which is determined by weighing). In this case, two methods of mass definition are used: according to the cargo size table or cargo scale and the calculated one.

For this purpose, the average sediment of the vessel is determined. Precipitation measurements are made in six points: three points along the left side (nose, middle, food) and three - right. The average sediment is determined by the formula:

T with p \u003d t n. b + 2 t with p l. b + t to l. B + T N P. B + 2 T C R P. B + T to P. B 8, M

where t n, t cf, t k - the sediment of the nose, the middle and the stern, respectively, for the left and right side, m.

In order to more accurately determine the mass of the batch of cargo sediment of the middle part of the vessel, where the largest amount of cargo is being doubled.

Based on the medium precipitation of the vessel in a loaded and empty state according to the schedule of freight size or by cargo, they determine the mass of submerged cargo.

The mass of the cargo batch q n will be equal to:

Q n \u003d q 2 - q 1, t,

Where Q 2 and Q 1 - loading the vessel in the load and empty, T;
T 0, T gr - register values \u200b\u200bof the precipitate, m;
₸ 0, ₸ gr - the average precipitate, m;
Q p - register load capacity, t;
At the same time, the value of Q 1\u003e 0 says that a ballast, fuel, supply of drinking water, etc. can be in the vessel.

If there is a cargo scale for the vessel, then the mass of the cargo batch is determined by it.

The cargo scale is the passport characteristic of the vessel and it is represented as a table.

In cases where there is no chart of a cargo size or cargo scale on the vessel, then the mass of the batch can be determined by calculation. The basis for determining the mass of the submerged (unloaded) cargo by sedimentation of the vessel is calculated by the principle of the difference in the vessel displacement with cargo and empty.

Q n \u003d d gr - d o, t,

where d gr, d o - displacement in load and email, t.

Displacement of the vessel is determined by the formula:

D С \u003d γδ l bt, m,

where L is the length of the vessel, m;
B - the width of the vessel, m;
T - sediment of the vessel, m;
Δ - the utmost displacement coefficient is defined as the ratio of the volume of the underwater part of the vessel to the volume of the parallelepiped, which describes the underwater part of the vessel;

γ - water density, t / m 3;
γ \u003d 1- for fresh water;
γ \u003d 1.003-1.031 - for salty water (variables depending on the marine pool).

Based on this, the mass of the cargo batch will be equal to:

Q n \u003d ΔΓ LB (T GR - T 0), t.

This formula is valid for determining the mass of cargo during transportation in the pool with the same water density by vessels with intensity, which do not vary in height or when loading the vessel on complete carrying capacity. In relative cases, it is necessary to consider the change in the utilization of water displacement and water density. Then the formula will take the form:

Q n \u003d lb (Δ gr γ 2 t gr - δ γ 1 t 0), t,

where Δ gr, δ o - the coefficients of the completeness of displacement in goods and empty;
γ 2, γ 1 is the density of water at the point of loading and unloading, t / m 3.

When determining the mass of cargo by sediment, it is necessary to take into account the change in stocks of fuel, ballast, drinking water, etc. during the overload operations. Formula will be:

Q n \u003d (d gr - σq g) - (d 0 - σq 0), t,

where σq gr, σq 0 is the magnitude of fuel reserves, drinking water and ballast before loading and after it.

When determining the mass of cargo by sediment, the most time consuming and not always quite accurate is the process of measuring the sediment of the vessel (excitement).

In transport documents, it is recorded: "By sediment".

Determining the mass of the cargo party transported in the pumped ships

The weight of the cargo batch can be determined in three ways:

• on the calibration tables of coastal reservoirs;
• settlement;
• on cargo tables of ships.

The first way is the easiest. There is a mixture height in the tank before and after loading, each determines the volumes of calibration tables and the difference of which will give the volume of shipping shipped to the ship. Then the mass of the cargo party will be equal to:

Q n \u003d v n γ n, t,

V n - volume of petroleum products, m 3;
γ H is the density of petroleum products, t / m 3.

In the absence of calibration tables of coastline cylindrical shape, the mass of petroleum products can be obtained by calculation:

Q n \u003d πr 2 hγ n, t,

where R is the radius of the tank, m;
h - the height of the filling, m;
γ H is the density of petroleum products, t / m 3.

This method is applied in cases where the distance from the coastal tanks is no more than 2 km; If more than 2 km, then it is forbidden to use this way (losses in pipelines).

In the absence of calibration tables of coastal tanks or when removing these tanks over 2 km from the vessel, the mass of the cargo batch can be determined by cargo tables of vessels.

The essence of the method is as follows: the height of the pitch is measured in all vessel tanks before and after the filling, then determine the volume in each tank, multiplies to the density of the corresponding cargo and the values \u200b\u200bobtained are summed up. This is the total mass of shipped shipped to the ship.

Determining the mass of the cargo party at the sender's application

This is the easiest of all ways. It is used in determining the mass of low-value bulk cargo.

For the correctness of the determination of the mass of the cargo party, the shipper carries responsibility. In the destination, the cargo is issued without testing the mass. However, it is necessary to pay attention to the following points:

• if the shipper incorrectly stated the mass of the cargo, then according to Art. 198 UHVT, a fine of the tariff is charged from it (in the size of a double-to-air fee accrued for unspecified amount of cargo). In addition, the following is charged for unspecified amount of cargo;
• if, as a result, an accident occurred incorrectly said mass, then, in addition to the specified payments, the truck pays all the costs of eliminating the accident.

In transport documents recorded: "According to the sender."

Offered for reading:

To determine the mass of the cargo (lifted or by the worker being transferred throughout the shift, constantly or when alternating with another work) is weighed on commodity scales. Only the maximum value is recorded. The weight of the cargo can also be determined by documents.

Example 1. Consider the previous example of 2 points 1. The mass of the lifted cargo is 21 kg, the load raised 150 times per shift, i.e. This is often the lifting load (more than 16 times per shift) (75 boxes, each rose 2 times), therefore, according to this indicator, the work should be attributed to class 3.2.

To determine the total mass of the cargo moving during each hour of shift, the weight of all goods per shift is summed up. Regardless of the actual duration of shift, the total weight of the shipment for shift is divided by 8, based on the 8-hour work shift.

In cases where the movement of cargo by hand occur both from the working surface and from the floor, the indicators should be summed. If a larger cargo was moved from the working surface than from the floor, the value obtained should be compared with this indicator, and if the largest movement was made from the floor, then with an indicator of the total weight of the cargo per hour when moving from the floor. If equal cargo is moved from the working surface and from the floor, then the total weight of the cargo is compared with the indicator of moving from the floor (examples 2 and 3).

Example 2. Consider an example of 1 point 1. Mass of cargo 2.5 kg, therefore, in accordance with Table. 17 manuals (p. 2.2) Labor gravity for this indicator refers to 1 class. For shift, the worker raises 1200 parts, 2 times each. Per hour it moves 150 parts (1200 parts: 8 hours). Each part of the worker takes 2 times, therefore, the total weight of the cargo moved during each hour of shift is 750 kg (150 x 2.5 kg x 2). The cargo moves from the working surface, so this work according to claim 2.3 can be attributed to the 2nd class.

Example 3. Consider an example of 2 points 1. When the parts are moved from the table to the machine and back the weight of the cargo 2.5 kg is multiplied by 600 and 2, we get 3000 kg per shift. When transferring boxes with details, the weight of each box is multiplied by the number of boxes (75) and 25, we get 3150 kg per shift. The total weight per shift \u003d 6150 kg, therefore, per hour - 769 kg. Box workers took from the rack. Half of the boxes stood on the lower shelf (height above the floor 10 cm), half - at the height of the desktop. Consequently, the larger cargo moved from the working surface and it is precisely with this indicator to compare the value obtained. In terms of the total weight of the cargo per hour, the work can be attributed to the 2nd class.

3. Stereotype work movements (number of shift,

total for two hands)

The concept of "working motion" in this case implies the movement elementary, i.e. Single movement of hands (or hands) from one position to another. Stereotypical working movements depending on the amplitude of movements and the muscular mass participating in the performance of the movement are divided into local and regional. Works for which local movements are characterized, as a rule, are performed in a rapid pace (60 - 250 movements per minute), and for shifting the number of movements can reach several tens of thousands. Since with these works pace, i.e. The number of movements per unit of time is practically not changed, then by calculating with the use of any automatic counter, the number of movements for 10 to 15 minutes, we calculate the number of movements of 1 min., and then multiply by the number of minutes during which this work is performed . The time of execution of work is determined by timing observations or by photo of the working day. The number of movements can also be determined by the number of characters printed (entered) per shift (count the number of characters on one page and multiply by the number of pages printed per day).

Example 1. Data entry operator in a personal computer prints 20 sheets for shifting 20 sheets. Number of signs on 1 sheet - 2720. The total number of imposed signs for shift - 54400, i.e. 54400 small local movements. Consequently, according to this indicator (clause 3.1 of the manual), its work refers to class 3.1.

Regional working movements are carried out, as a rule, at a slower pace and easily calculate their number for 10-15 minutes. Or for 1 - 2 repetitive operations, several times per shift. After that, knowing the total number of operations or time of work, we count the total number of regional movements per shift.

Example 2. A painter performs about 80 movements of a large amplitude per minute. Total main work occupies 65% of working time, i.e. 312 minutes for shifting. The number of movements per shift \u003d 24960 (312 x 80), which, in accordance with clause 3.2 of the manual, allows its work to class 3.1.

1. Amplitude frequency characteristic (ACH)
   ​

   Amplitude-frequency characteristic - (Abbreviated ACH, in English - Frequency Response) - the dependence of amplitudeoscillations (volume) at the exit from frequency reproduced harmonic signal.

   Term " amplitude-frequency characteristic"Applied only with the device for signal processing and sensors - i.e. For devices through which the signal passes. When they talk about devices designed to generate signals (generator, musical instruments, etc.), it is more correct to use the term "frequency range".

   Let's start from far away.

   Sound is a special type of mechanical oscillation of an elastic medium capable of causing auditory sensations.

   The basis of the processes of creation, distribution and perception of sound are mechanical fluctuations in elastic tel:
   - Creating sound - determined by fluctuations of strings, plates, membranes, air columns and other elements of musical instruments, as well as the diaphragms of loudspeakers and other elastic bodies;
   - the propagation of sound - depends on the mechanical oscillations of the particles of the medium (air, water, wood, metal, etc.);
   - The perception of sound - begins with mechanical oscillations of the eardrum in the hearing aid, and only after that there is a complex processing process in various parts of the hearing system.

   Therefore, to understand the nature of the sound, we must first consider mechanical oscillations.
   Oscillations Repeating processes change any parameters of the system (for example, temperature differences, heartbeat, moon movement, etc.).
   Mechanical oscillations - These are the repetitive movements of various bodies (the rotation of the Earth and the planets, the oscillations of the pendulum, tuning, strings, etc.).
   Mechanical oscillations are primarily the movement of tel. The mechanical movement of the body is called "a change in its position over time with respect to other bodies."

   All movements are described using such concepts as displacement, speed and acceleration.

   Bias - It is the path (distance), passed by the body during its movement from some point of reference. Any body movement can be described as a change in its position in time (T) and in space (x, y, z). Graphically this can be represented (for example, for bodies that are shifted in one direction) as a line on the X (T) plane - in a two-dimensional coordinate system. The displacement is measured in meters (m).

   If for each equal period of time the body shifts on an equal segment of the path, then this is a uniform movement. Uniform movement is a movement at a constant speed.

   Speed - This is the path passed by the body per unit of time.
   It is defined as "the ratio of the length of the path by a period of time, for which this path is passed."
   Speed \u200b\u200bis measured in meters per second (m / s).
   If the displacement of the body in equal intervals of the time is not the same, the body makes an uneven movement. At the same time, the speed changes all the time, i.e. it is a movement of variable speed.

   Acceleration - This is the ratio of changes in speed by the time interval for which this change occurred.

   If the body moves at a constant speed, then the acceleration is zero. If the speed changes evenly (equivalent movement), then the acceleration is constantly: a \u003d const. If the speed changes unevenly, the acceleration is defined as the first derivative of the speed (or the second offset derivative): A \u003d DV I DT \u003d DRX I DT2.
   Acceleration is measured in meters per second in a square (M / C2).

   Simple harmonic oscillations (amplitude, frequency, phase).
   ​

   In order for the movement to be oscillatory (i.e. repeating), a returning force should act on the body, directed opposite to the displacement (it must return the body back). If the value of this force is proportional to the displacement and is directed in the opposite direction, i.e. f \u003d - kh, then under the action of such force, the body performs repeating movements, returning at equal periods of time to the equilibrium position. Such a movement of the body is called simple harmonious oscillation. This type of movement underlies the creation of complex musical sounds, since it is strings, membranes, maeys of musical instruments fluctuate under the action of elastic returns.

   An example of simple harmonic oscillations can serve as mass oscillations (cargo) on the spring.

   Amplitude oscillations (A.) It is called the maximum bodies offset from the equilibrium position (with the established oscillations it is constant).

   Period of oscillations (T.) It is called the smallest period of time through which the oscillations are repeated. For example, if the pendulum passes a full cycle of oscillations (in the same way) for 0.01 s, then its period of oscillations is equal to this value: t \u003d 0.01 s. For simple harmonic oscillation, the period does not depend on the amplitude of oscillations.

   Frequency of oscillations (f.) Determined by the number of oscillations (cycles) per second. The unit of its measurement is equal to one fluctuate per second and is called Hertz (Hz).
   The frequency of oscillations is the value, reverse period: F \u003d 1 / t.

   w. - angular (circular) frequency. The angular frequency is associated with the frequency of oscillations by the formula CO \u003d 2PF, where the number n \u003d 3.14. It is measured in radians per second (rad / s). For example, if the frequency f \u003d 100 Hz, then CO \u003d 628 rad / s.

   f0 - initial phase. The initial phase determines the position of the body from which the oscillation began. It is measured in degrees.
   For example, if the pendulum began to fluctuate from the equilibrium position, its initial phase is zero. If the pendulum first deflects to the extreme right position and then push, it will begin fluctuations with the initial phase of 90 °. If two pendulum (or two strings, membranes, etc.) will begin their oscillations with a time delay, the phase shift is formed between them.

   If the time delay is equal to one quarter of the period, then the phase shift is 90 °, if half the period -180 °, three quarters of the period - 270 °, one period is 360 °.

   At the time of passing the position of equilibrium, the body has a maximum speed, and at these moments the kinetic energy is maximum, and the potential is zero. If this amount was always constant, then any body, derived from the equilibrium position, would have hesitated forever, it would be "Eternal Engine". However, in the real environment, part of the energy is spent on overcoming friction in the air, friction in supports, etc. (for example, the pendulum in a viscous environment would fluctuate a very short length of time), so the amplitude of the oscillations is becoming less and gradually the body (string, pendulum, Camerton) stops - oscillations are attenuating.
   Flowing oscillation graphically can be represented as oscillations with gradually decreasing amplitude.

   In electroacustics, radio engineering and musical acoustics to determine the attenuation processes is often used by the value called welcome Systems - Q..​

   Quality(Q.) It is defined as the value, the inverse attenuation coefficient:

   that is, the less goodness, the faster the oscillations fade.
   

   Free fluctuations in complex systems. Spectrum
   ​

   The oscillatory systems described above, for example, the pendulum or cargo on the spring are characterized by the fact that they have one mass (cargo) and one rigidity (springs or threads) and move (oscillations) in one direction. Such systems are called systems with one degree of freedom.
   Real oscillating bodies (strings, plates, membranes, etc.), creating sound in musical instruments, are significantly more complex devices.
   

   Consider fluctuations in systems with two degrees of freedom consisting of two masses on the springs.

   In real excitution, the string is usually excited by several first intrinsic frequencies, the amplitudes of oscillations at the remaining frequencies are very small and do not have a significant effect on the general form of oscillations.
   ​

   
   ​

   A set of own frequencies and amplitudes of oscillations that are excited in this body when exposed to the external force on it (shock, tweak, broken, etc.), called amplitude spectrum .
   If a set of oscillation phases at these frequencies is presented, then such a spectrum is called phase.
   An example of the shape of the oscillations of the string of violin excited by the bow, and its spectrum is shown in the figure

   The main terms that are used to describe the spectrum of the oscillating body are as follows:
   The first main (lower) own frequency is called fundamental frequency (sometimes it is called main frequency).
   All own frequencies above the first are called obrafton, for example, in the figure, the fundamental frequency of 100 Hz, the first overtone - 110 Hz, the second overtone - 180 Hz, etc. Obtems, the frequencies of which are in integer ratios with the fundamental frequency, are called harmonies (while the fundamental frequency is called first harmonic). For example, in the figure, the third overton is a second harmonic, since its frequency is 200 Hz, i.e. refers to the fundamental frequency as 2: 1.

   To be continued... .
   To the question: "Why is it from far away?". I will answer right away. That the Chart of Ahh is not as simple as many of him represent. The main thing is to understand how it is formed and what he will say to us.

2. It was so necessary that the average human ear distinguishes the signals in the range from 20 to 20,000 Hz (or 20 kHz). This rather solid range in turn is usually divided by 10 octaves (can be divided into any other number, but it is usually 10).
   In general octave - This is the frequency range, the boundaries of which are calculated by doubling or frequency heap. The lower limit of the subsequent octave is obtained by doubling the lower boundary of the previous octave.
   Actually, why do you need knowing the octave? It is necessary in order to stop the confusion in the fact that you need to call the bottom, medium or some other bass and the like. The generally accepted set of octave uniquely determines who there is someone with an accuracy to Hertz.

   The last row is not numbered. This is due to the fact that it is not included in the standard dozen octave. Pay attention to the "Name 2" column. It contains the names of the octave, which are allocated by musicians. These "strange" people have no concept of deep bass, but there is one octave from above - from 20480 Hz. Therefore, such a discrepancy in numbering and names.

   Now you can talk more objectively about the frequency range of acoustic systems. It should be started with an unpleasant news: there is no deep bass in multimedia acoustics. 20 Hz The overwhelming majority of music lovers at -3 dB simply never heard. And now the news is pleasant and unexpected. There are no such frequencies in the real signal (for some exception, naturally). An exception is, for example, a record from the IASCA Competition judicial disk. The song is called "The Viking". There, even 10 Hz recorded with a decent amplitude. This track was recorded in a special room on a huge body. The system that will play "Vikings", the judges assheate the awards, like a Christmas tree with toys. And with a real signal, everything is easier: the bass drum is from 40 Hz. Hearty Chinese drums - also from 40 Hz (there are there among them, however, one megaban. So he starts playing from 30 Hz). Live double bass - in general from 60 Hz. As you can see, 20 Hz are not mentioned here. Therefore, you can not be upset about the lack of so low components. They are not needed for listening to real music.

   Here is still a cognitive page where you can visually (with the help of a mouse), more in more detail, see this sign

   Knowing the alphabet of octave and music, you can proceed to understand the frequency response.
   Ahh (amplitude-frequency characteristic) - Dependence of the amplitude of oscillation at the output of the device from the frequency of the input harmonic signal. That is, the system is fed to the input signal, the level of which is accepted for 0 dB. From this signal column with an amplifying path make that they can. They are usually not direct for 0 dB, but in some way the broken line. The most interesting, by the way, is that everything (from audio readers to audio producers) seek to be perfectly even responding accommodation, but they are afraid to "face".
   Actually, what is the benefit of the frequency response and why do you try to measure this curve with enviable constancy? The fact is that it can be established by real, and not the "evil marketing spirit" to the manufacturer of the frequency band boundary. It is customary to specify, with what falling the signal, the boundary frequencies are still played. Unless specified, it is considered that standard -3 dBs were taken. Here and lies the trick. Do not specify enough when the border values \u200b\u200bwere taken, and you can absolutely honestly indicate at least 20 Hz - 20 kHz, although, indeed, these 20 Hz are achievable at a signal level that is very different from the laid -3.
   Also, the benefits of ACH are expressed in that, although approximately, it can be understood which problems the selected system will occur. And the system as a whole. Ahh suffers from all elements of the path. To understand how the system on schedule sounds, you need to know the elements of psychoacastics. If short, then the situation is like this: a person is talking within the middle frequencies. Therefore, perceives them best. And at the corresponding Octaves, the schedule must be the most even, since distortions in this area are strongly pressured on the ears. It is also undesirable to have high narrow peaks. The general rule here is: the peaks are heard better than the depressions, and the sharp peak is heard better than color.

   On the scale of the abscissa (blue) are frequencies in Hertz (Hz)

   On the Ordinate scale (red) there is a sensitivity level (DB)

   Green - Schh herself

   When performing measurements, the ACH as a test signal is used not a sinusoidal wave, but a special signal called "pink noise".
   Pink noise - This is a pseudo-random broadband signal, in which the total power at all frequencies within any octave is equal to total power at all frequencies within any other octave. For sound, it is very similar to the waterfall.

   Loudspeakers are directed devices, i.e. They focus the emitted sound in a certain direction. As the loudspeaker is removed from the main axis, the sound level can decrease, and its response becomes less linear.
   Volume

   Often the terms "volume" and "sound pressure level" are used as interchangeable, but it is incorrect, since the term "volume" has its own set value. The sound pressure level in dB is determined using sound level meters.

   Curves equal volume and backgrounds

   Will listeners perceive test noise-like or sinusoidal signals with linear frequency response in the entire range of sound frequencies aimed at power amplifier with linear frequency response, and then on a loudspeaker with linear frequency response, equally loud at all frequencies? The fact is that the sensitivity of human hearing is non-linear character, and therefore the sounds of equal volume at different frequencies listeners will perceive as sounds with different sound pressure.

   This phenomenon is described by the so-called "curves of equal volume" (pattern), which show which sound pressure is required at different frequencies in order for the listeners the volume of these sounds is equal to the volume of sound with a frequency of 1 kHz. So that we perceive the sounds of higher and lower frequencies, the same loud as the sound with a frequency of 1 kHz, they must have a greater sound pressure. And the smaller the sound level, the less sensitively our ear to low frequencies.

   The sound pressure level of the reference sound at a frequency of 1000 Hz (for example, 40 dB) is set, then the subject is proposed to listen to the signal at another frequency (for example, 100 Hz), and adjust its level so that it seems to be an equal reference. Signals can be locked via phones or via loudspeakers. If you do this for different frequencies, and postpone the obtained sound pressure level values \u200b\u200bthat are required for signaling different frequency signals so that they are equal to the reference signal, it turns out one of the curves in the figure.
   For example, that the sound with a frequency of 100 Hz seemed as loud as a sound with a frequency of 1000 Hz with a level of 40 dB, its level should be higher, about 50 dB. If a sound is served with a frequency of 50 Hz, then to make it equal with reference, you need to raise its level to 65 dB, etc. If you now increase the level of reference sound up to 60 dB and repeat all experiments, then the curve of equal volume corresponding to the level of 60 dB ...
   The family of such curves for different levels 0, 10, 20 ... 110DB is shown in the figure. These curves are called curvions of equal volume. They were obtained by scientists Fletcher and Manson as a result of data processing of a large number of experiments conducted by them among several hundred visitors to the World Exhibition of 1931 in New York.
   Currently, in the International Standard ISO 226 (1987), the refined measurement data obtained in 1956 was adopted. It is the data from the ISO standard and are presented in the figure, while the measurements were performed in the free field conditions, that is, in a muffled chamber, the sound source was located front and the sound was fed through loudspeakers. Now new results have been accumulated, and it is assumed to clarify these data in the near future. Each of the shown curves is called an eyelet and characterizes the volume of the sounds of different frequency sounds.

   If you analyze these curves, it can be seen that at low sound pressure levels, the volume level estimate is very much depends on the frequency - the hearing is less sensitive to low and high frequencies, and it is required to create much greater levels of sound pressure so that the sound began to sound equal to the reference sound of 1000 Hz. At high levels, the isophons are aligned, the rise at low frequencies becomes less cool - there is a faster increase in the volume of low frequency sounds than medium and high. Thus, at large levels, low, medium and high sounds are estimated at volume levels more evenly.
   

   So. We have removed by measuring equipment. The level of sound pressure and the volume, which is physically perceived by the person.

   
   There is a question about this! Removing the frequency response with the help of measuring equipment we get what? What does our ear hears? Or what indications takes off the microphone with its sensitive element of the measuring equipment? And what conclusion from these readings can be made?

3. There is a question about this! Removing the frequency response with the help of measuring equipment we get what? What does our ear hears? Or what indications takes off the microphone with its sensitive element of the measuring equipment? And what conclusion from these readings can be made?

The determination of the mass with the help of weights meters is the most accurate, but rather time-consuming operation that causes substantial downtime of rolling stock. Therefore, in practice, the estimated methods for determining the mass of cargo use more often. The weight of the cargo at the destination is determined by the same way that it is installed in the point of departure.

In river ports for weighing cargo, lever scales operating on the principle of equilibrium levers are used, of which the goods are placed on one, on the other - Giri. Such mechanisms include scales of commodity mobile and stationary, automotive, carriage and bucket elevator.

The conditions of equilibrium lever scales are expressed by the formula

PL \u003d P 1 L 1

where P, P 1 -forces attached at the ends of the lever (weight and weighed goods);

l, L 1 - Leverage length lever from the point of the support to the point of the application of the forces.

Based on the specified principle, lever scales of various types are operating. Weighing (comparing the mass of the weighed body with weight of the weight) is made taking into account the length of the arm of the levers.

For weighing cargo in the process of moving them with a crane or conveyor, conveyor and crane electromechanical scales are served. The amount of cargo located on the platform of the scales, depending on their design, is set by counting the conditionally nominal mass of balancing weights or by testimony on the scale, dial, discrete-digital device.

Lever scales

For weights with testimony on the scale, there are no invoicing weights. Their equilibrium is achieved by moving on the Mobile Giri scale (which changes the shoulder lever), the result of weighing is visible directly on the scale. On the dial scales, the mass of the cargo is determined by the angle of deviation of the rocker from the position of the initial balance. On discrete-digital scales, the weighing result is fixed on a special scoreboard using an electronic device.

The main properties of all sorts of weights are sensitivity, stability; loyalty and constancy of weight testimony.

Sensitivitythe weights are called the ratio of the mass of additional cargo, which caused the deviation of the rocker at 2-5 mm from the position of the equilibrium, to the mass of the main cargo on the site of the scales. The less this attitude; The more sensitive scales and more accurate the result of weighing. The sensitivity of the scales depends on the length of the rocker, the distance between the center of gravity of the scales and the spanking point, from the friction forces at the sovereten suspension.

Sustainabilityit is called the property of the scales to return to the initial position of equilibrium after several smooth rocker oscillations derived from the equilibrium state.

Fidelity,i.e. the accuracy of weight readings depends on the correct ratio of the arm of the lever and the friction force arising in the reference parts of the mechanism. Due to the impossibility to eliminate the influence of friction and achieve an absolutely accurate ratio of levers for all scales, gostas have permissible errors.

Constabilityit is called immutability of weight readings during repeated weighing of the same cargo. The constancy largely depends on the compliance of the rules of the content of the weights.

Commodity scaleshave a steady location of the load receipt platform. They are manufactured by a loading capacity of 1000, 2000, 3000 kg. Commodity stationary scales deepen into the floor of the warehouse so that the load-receiving platform is at the floor level. The correct installation of commodity scales is tested by the level or plunder located on the scales column.

Car weightsthey have the highest weighing limits of 10 -150 tons. They are installed on a solid foundation not in stock, but on the territory of the port on the movement of motor vehicles. Scales are designed for weighing goods together with cars and road trains.

The weight of the cargo is determined as the difference between the mass of the loaded and empty car.

Wagon scalesmay be single and double. The largest limit of weighing 60, 150 and 200 tons. Two-platform scales are designed for weighing different wagons in the length of both one and on two platforms. Two platforms of different lengths (15.5 and 3.7 m) are installed on a general foundation. All sublotform lever mechanisms are attached to one common rocker. Connecting to the rocker of each platform separately or two together is made using a special device.

When weighing goods on the carriage weights, the following rules must be observed: weigh each car separately; serve wagons on scales (with a fixed weight rocker) at a speed of no more than 5 km; wagons to pop up so that they are in a free state (weighing cars without extinguishing are not allowed, except for the cases provided for by the rules); In determining the mass of valuable freights, check the mass of tara cars;

when determining the mass of bulk cargo, the Tar of the Vagon is taken on an inscription-stencil on a wagon sewller bar.

Railway strain gauges VJTD-ELKOM-150.

Scales are designed for a very precious weighing of moving cars in the composition. Weighing is carried out without drawing the composition with the registration of the mass of each car and the mass of the composition as a whole.

Bucket automatic scalesapply for weighing bulk cargo, in particular grain on elevators. Scales make two types: with a tipping bucket and with the opening bottom of the bucket. On automatic scales with the opening bottom, the bucket grain is weighed as follows: a hypographer suspended by the end of the rocker under the action of the weight of the weight drops down, and the bucket, fixed on the opposite end of the rocker, rises up and opens the bunker flap. Grain from the bunker enters the bucket, which is lowered under his weight. When the equilibrium reaches the rocker, the bunker flap closes, and the bucket, continuing on the inertia to drop down, reaches the stop. At the same time, its bottom, held by the cheek, opens and the grain is poured into the receiver. The bucket freed from the cargo rises again, its folding bottom closes, the bunker flap opens, and the cycle, weighing is repeated.

Estimated method

5.3.1 by standard mass.

When transporting tar-piece goods in standard containers (sugar, flour, cereals in bags, confectionery and pasta boxes, fabric, knitwear in bales and piles, cement and fertilizers in paper and plastic bags, beverages in barrels, etc.) The cargo is determined by standard mass of one cargo seatand total seats.

where: G gr -lot of cargo party, t;

Q gr- Mass of one standard shipping place , t;

N c -number of seats in the cargo party , units.

5.3.2 on the conditional mass of the place.

By stencilmass pointing in freight places transport: butter creamy, margarine, cheeses, canned food and beverages in glassware, fish products, food concentrates, shoes, clothing, metal products, appliances, equipment, machines, etc.

By conditionalmass are transported large-sized piece goods in a container and without packaging (cars, agricultural machines, earthmoving equipment, shelter, reactors, pipes of large diameters, etc.). The conditional mass of individual piece goods is given in the tariff leadership 1-p, the price list is 14-01 tariffs for the carriage of goods and towing rafts with river transport (Appendix 5 conditional mass of individual piece goods).

5.3.3 In terms of cargo party.

When determining the mass of bulk and bulk cargo, timber and firewood by measurement of goods laid on the shore warehouse in the stacking properly and convenient for the measurement of the form. The volume of cargo in cubic meters mounted by measurement is multiplied by mass I 3 of this cargo, indicated in the tariff manual No. 1-P (Appendix 6. Translation of volumetric measures in weight measurement). The product expresses the mass of cargo in tons. The volume of cargo is determined depending on the geometric shape, which it forms when storing, using known geometry formulas (see Table).

Timber take into account volume measurein cubic meters, and export timber - standards.To determine the mass of timber materials, the coefficients of transformation from the volume into mass, depending on the breed of the forest, its humidity (freshly durable and air-dry round forest).

The mass of the round forest is also determined by the labeling of each log, on the ends of which the diameter is affixed.

For example:

Table 16.

Formulas for calculating the volume of major forms of cargo

5.3.4 by sediment of the vessel.

The basis of this method of determining the mass is the principle of calculating the vessel displacement when it changes its precipitation as a result of loading or unloading. The method is used in cases where the cargo is not weighed on the scales, or its mass is determined by the sender conditionally (by the survey), or to calculate the transport fee is needed a control inspection of the mass.

To determine the displacement it is necessary to know its main dimensions in meters: Calculation length L R.waterlinia Cases, Estimated Width In R.according to Middle Spanchoute at the level of the Waterlinia, the maximum sediment T. r for a given area of \u200b\u200bswimming, generate sediment T oh,coeffental b. The completeness of the displacement, the coefficient of water density. Displacement D C is defined as a product of these quantities:

,

For fresh water \u003d 1. Sea water density varies depending on temperature and salinity.

The cargo scale of maritime courts is calculated on the average water density of 1.026.

Displacement of the vessel in loads ( D G.) and empty (D O)states are determined by similar formulas, taking into account the corresponding precipitates and the coefficients of completeness of displacement.

where T N. , T. from, T K.- sediment, respectively, the nasal, middle and aft vessels of the vessel on the right side, m;

T "n, t" s, t "to- The same, on the left side, m.

Similarly determine the sediment of the vessel after loading, calculated.

The cargo scale of the vessel (cargo table) is given

in tab. 5.1

Table 5.1.

Shipboat

project № P25 A class "0", q \u003d 1500 t

Note: For the original displacement of the vessel D \u003d 560 T, the vessel displacement is taken by empty with full reserves without ballast.

5.3.5 Determination of the mass of oil cargo

Oil and petroleum products on river transport are transported in a specialized self-propelled and non-self-propelled rolling stock. Loading and unloading of petroleum products in bulk is made on specialized piernes of tank farms equipped with special pumps for pumping.

The determination of the mass of petroleum products is made in two ways:

the first - on the measurers of coastal tanks of petroleummers, having calibration tables, or by special counters of oil bias;

the second is to measure the height of the pouring or draining in the cargo room of the river vessel.

Coastal tanks must have standard calibration tables, in the absence of which counters are installed, which should provide productivity of vessels not lower than the established norms. Technically serviceable tools should be applied on the berths of petroleum products.

On the vessel to determine the height, a tape measure with a lot or a measuring rail with a water-sensitive ribbon fortified on them is used. The vessel should contain the calibration tables, according to which the volume of pouring or draining is determined. The procedure for performing the operation according to the rules for the transport of goods and the corresponding guests.

 

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