Report: Nuclear power plants. nuclear power plants nuclear power plants physics message

Nuclear power plants

Prepared by a student of grade 11A

MBOU secondary school №70

Andreeva Anna 2014

Introduction

History of creation

Device and "celebrities"

1 Working principle

2 Classification

3 Notable nuclear power plants

1 Advantages

2 Disadvantages

3 Is there a future for nuclear power plants?

Bibliography

Introduction

About energy and fuel

Nuclear power plant (NPP) - a nuclear installation for the production of energy in specified modes and conditions of use, located within the territory defined by the project, in which a nuclear reactor (reactors) and a complex of necessary systems, devices, equipment and structures with the necessary workers are used for this purpose (personnel).

The division of the atomic nucleus can occur spontaneously or when an elementary particle enters it. Spontaneous decay is not used in nuclear power engineering due to its very low intensity.

Uranium isotopes - uranium-235 and uranium-238, as well as plutonium-239 can currently be used as fissile material.

A chain reaction takes place in a nuclear reactor. The nuclei of uranium or plutonium decay, and two or three nuclei of the elements in the middle of the periodic table are formed, energy is released and two or three neutrons are formed, which, in turn, can react with other atoms and, having caused their fission, continue the chain reaction. For the decay of any atomic nucleus, an elementary particle with a certain energy must enter it (the value of this energy must lie in a certain range: a slower or faster particle will simply repel from the nucleus without penetrating into it). For example, Uranium-238 is only fissile with fast neutrons. During its fission, energy is released and 2-3 fast neutrons are formed. Due to the fact that these fast neutrons are slowed down in the substance of uranium-238 to speeds that are unable to cause fission of the uranium-238 nucleus, the chain reaction in uranium-238 cannot proceed.

1. History of creation

In the second half of the 40s, even before the completion of work on the creation of the first Soviet atomic bomb(its test took place on August 29, 1949), Soviet scientists began to develop the first projects for the peaceful use of atomic energy, the general direction of which immediately became the electric power industry.

In 1948, at the suggestion of I.V. Kurchatov and in accordance with the instructions of the party and the government, the first work began on practical application atomic energy to generate electricity.

In May 1950, near the village of Obninskoye, Kaluga Region, work began on the construction of the world's first nuclear power plant.

The world's first industrial nuclear power plant with a capacity of 5 MW was launched on June 27, 1954 in the USSR, in the city of Obninsk, located in the Kaluga region. In 1958, the 1st stage of the Siberian NPP with a capacity of 100 MW was put into operation, subsequently the full design capacity was increased to 600 MW. In the same year, the construction of the Beloyarsk industrial nuclear power plant began, and on April 26, 1964, the generator of the 1st stage gave current to consumers. In September 1964, the 1st unit was launched Novovoronezh NPP with a capacity of 210 MW. The second unit with a capacity of 365 MW was launched in December 1969. In 1973, the Leningrad NPP was launched.

Outside the USSR, the first industrial nuclear power plant with a capacity of 46 MW was put into operation in 1956 at Calder Hall (Great Britain). A year later, a 60 MW nuclear power plant was put into operation in Shippingport (USA).

May 1989, at the founding assembly in Moscow, it was announced the official formation of the World Association of Nuclear Power Plant Operators (WANO), an international professional association uniting organizations operating nuclear power plants around the world. The Association has set itself ambitious goals to improve nuclear safety throughout the world by implementing its international programs.

2. Device and "celebrities"

1 Working principle

The figure shows a diagram of the operation of a nuclear power plant with a double-circuit water-cooled power reactor. The energy released in the reactor core is transferred to the primary coolant (coolant is a liquid or gaseous substance passing through the volume of the core). Next, the coolant enters the heat exchanger (steam generator), where it heats the secondary circuit water to a boil. The resulting steam enters the turbines that rotate the electric generators. At the outlet of the turbines, the steam enters the condenser, where it is cooled by a large amount of water coming from the reservoir.

The pressure compensator is a rather complex and bulky structure, which serves to equalize pressure fluctuations in the circuit during reactor operation, which arise due to the thermal expansion of the coolant. The pressure in the 1st circuit can reach up to 160 atmospheres.

In addition to water, metal melts can also be used as a coolant in various reactors: sodium, lead, an alloy of lead with bismuth, etc. The use of liquid metal coolants makes it possible to simplify the design of the reactor core shell (unlike the water circuit, the pressure in the liquid metal circuit does not exceed atmospheric ), get rid of the pressure compensator.

If it is not possible to use a large amount of water to condense the steam, instead of using a reservoir, the water can be cooled in special cooling towers (cooling towers), which, due to their size, are usually the most visible part of a nuclear power plant

Thus, three mutual transformations of forms of energy take place at nuclear power plants: nuclear energy transforms into thermal energy, thermal energy into mechanical energy, and mechanical energy into electrical energy.

2 Classification

In a single-circuit scheme (Fig. 2 a), steam is generated directly in the reactor and enters the steam turbine, the shaft of which is connected to the generator shaft. The exhaust steam in the turbine condenses in the condenser and is fed back to the reactor by a feed pump. Thus, in this scheme, the coolant is simultaneously the working fluid. The advantage of single-circuit NPPs is their simplicity and lower cost of equipment compared to NPPs made according to other schemes, and the disadvantage is the radioactivity of the coolant, which puts forward additional requirements for the design and operation of NPP steam turbine plants.

Rice. 2 a - single-circuit; b - double-circuit; in - three-circuit; 1 - reactor; 2 - steam turbine; 3 - electric generator; 4 - capacitor; 5 - feed pump; 6 - circulation pump; 7 - volume compensator; 8 - steam generator; 9 - intermediate heat exchanger

In the double-circuit thermal scheme of the NPP (Fig. 2 b), the coolant and working fluid circuits are separated. The coolant circuit pumped through the reactor and the steam generator by a circulation pump is called the first or reactor, and the working fluid circuit is called the second. Both circuits are closed, and heat exchange between the coolant and the working fluid is carried out in the steam generator. The turbine, which is part of the second circuit, operates in the absence of radiation activity, which simplifies its operation. In fast neutron reactors, the use of materials that moderate neutrons well is excluded; therefore, not water is used as a coolant, but molten sodium, which moderates neutrons to a very small extent and, having good thermophysical properties, ensures efficient heat transfer. The disadvantages of sodium as a coolant are its increased chemical interaction with water and steam and a large induced activity during neutron irradiation in the reactor. Therefore, in order to exclude the contact of radioactive sodium with water or steam, an intermediate circuit is created.

In three-loop NPP schemes (Fig. 2c), the primary radioactive coolant (liquid sodium) is pumped through the reactor and the intermediate heat exchanger, in which it gives off heat to the non-radioactive coolant pumped through the intermediate heat exchanger-steam generator circuit. The contour of the working fluid is similar to the two-circuit scheme of a nuclear power plant. The second circuit eliminates the possible interaction of radioactive sodium with water in the event of leaks in the heat exchange walls of the steam generator. The introduction of this circuit leads to an additional increase in capital costs by 15 - 20%, however, it increases the reliability and safety of the station.

3 Notable nuclear power plants

Balakovo NPP is a nuclear power plant located 8 km from the city of Balakovo, Saratov Region, on the left bank of the Saratov Reservoir. It is the largest nuclear power plant in Russia in terms of electricity generation - more than 30 billion kWh annually, which provides a quarter of electricity generation in Privolzhsky federal district and makes up one fifth of the output of all nuclear power plants in Russia. Among largest power plants of all types in the world occupies the 51st position. The first power unit of the BalNPP was included in the Unified Energy System of the USSR in December 1985, the fourth unit in 1993 was the first to be put into operation in Russia after the collapse of the USSR.

Obninsk NPP is a nuclear power plant located in the city of Obninsk, Kaluga Region. It is the world's first industrial nuclear power plant connected to a single power grid. At present, the Obninsk NPP has been decommissioned. Its reactor was shut down on April 29, 2002, after nearly 48 years of successful operation. The shutdown of the reactor was caused by the scientific and technical inexpediency of its further operation. Obninsk NPP is the first shut down nuclear power plant in Russia.

Nuclear power plant Kashiwazaki-Kariwa, concurrently the largest nuclear power plant in the world, is located in the Niigata Prefecture of Japan, near the city of Kashiwazaki. The year of construction of Kashiwazaki-Kariwa was 1977, it was put into operation in 1985. Kashiwazaki Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant - includes this moment seven reactors. The total capacity of the largest nuclear power plant in the world and Japan, Kashiwazaki-Kariwa, is 8,212 MW. This capacity, for example, is almost twice as high as the total capacity of nuclear power plants in India, which is in sixth place in the world in terms of the number of reactors.

3. Results

1 Advantages

The main advantage of nuclear power plants is the practical independence from fuel sources due to the small volume of its use. The cost of transporting nuclear fuel, unlike the traditional one, is negligible. In Russia, this is especially important in the European part, since the delivery of coal from Siberia is too expensive.

A huge advantage of a nuclear power plant is its relative environmental cleanliness. At TPPs, the total annual emissions of harmful substances, which include sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon oxides, hydrocarbons, aldehydes and fly ash, range from about 13,000 tons per year for gas and up to 165,000 tons for pulverized coal TPPs. There are no such emissions at nuclear power plants.

A thermal power plant with a capacity of 1000 MW consumes 8 million tons of oxygen per year for fuel oxidation, while nuclear power plants do not consume oxygen at all. In addition, a coal plant gives a higher specific release of radioactive substances.

Also, some nuclear power plants remove part of the heat for the needs of heating and hot water supply of cities, which reduces unproductive heat losses, there are existing and promising projects for the use of "excess" heat in energy-biological complexes (fish farming, growing oysters, heating greenhouses, etc.).

The advantage of nuclear power plants in the cost of electricity produced is especially noticeable during the so-called energy crises that began in the early 1970s. Falling oil prices automatically reduce the competitiveness of nuclear power plants.

3.2 Disadvantages

However, despite the relative environmental cleanliness, any nuclear power plant has an impact on environment in three directions:

gaseous (including radioactive) emissions into the atmosphere;

Emissions of a large amount of heat;

The greatest danger is the possibility of an accident at a nuclear power plant, which has severe consequences. Due to the strongest heat release, the reactor core may melt and radioactive substances may enter the environment. If there is water in the reactor, then in the event of such an accident, it will decompose into hydrogen and oxygen, which will lead to an explosion of explosive gas in the reactor and a fairly serious destruction of not only the reactor, but the entire power unit with radioactive contamination of the area.

To protect people and the atmosphere from radioactive emissions, special measures are taken at nuclear power plants:

improving the reliability of NPP equipment,

duplication of vulnerable systems,

high requirements for staff qualifications,

protection and protection from external influences.

Surrounding the nuclear power plant with a sanitary protection zone

3 Is there a future for nuclear power plants?

Academician Anatoly Alexandrov believed that "large-scale nuclear power will be the greatest boon for mankind and will solve a number of acute problems."

Alternative ways of obtaining energy due to the energy of tides, wind, the Sun, geothermal sources, etc. are currently inferior in terms of productivity to traditional energy. These types of energy generation have a negative impact on tourism, and some tidal power plants are criticized by windsurfers. In addition, when using the wind field in groups, windmills create low-frequency vibration, which animals can suffer from.

Currently, international projects are being developed for new generation nuclear reactors, such as GT-MGR, which promise to improve safety and increase the efficiency of nuclear power plants.

Russia has begun construction of the world's first floating nuclear power plant to solve the problem of energy shortages in remote coastal areas of the country.

The USA and Japan are developing mini-nuclear power plants with a capacity of about 10-20 MW for the purpose of heat and power supply to individual industries, residential complexes, and in the future - individual houses. With a decrease in the capacity of the installation, the expected scale of production increases. Small-sized reactors (for example, Hyperion NPP) are created using safe technologies that greatly reduce the possibility of leakage of nuclear material.

Even more interesting, albeit a relatively distant prospect, is the use of nuclear fusion energy. Thermonuclear reactors, according to calculations, will consume less fuel per unit of energy, and both this fuel itself (deuterium, lithium, helium-3) and their synthesis products are not radioactive and, therefore, environmentally friendly.

Currently, with the participation of Russia, the United States, Japan and the European Union in the south of France in Cadarache, the construction of the international experimental thermonuclear reactor ITER is underway.

nuclear power plant reactor

Bibliography

1. V.A. Ivanov "NPP operation", textbook, 1994;

T.X. Margulov "Nuclear Power Plants", textbook, 5th ed., 1994

Energy is one of the most global problems of mankind. Civilian infrastructure, industry, the military - all require huge amounts of electricity, and a lot of minerals are allocated annually to generate it. The problem is that these resources are not endless, and now, while the situation is more or less stable, we need to think about the future. Great hopes were placed on alternative, clean electricity, however, as practice shows, the end result is far from desired. The costs of solar or wind power plants are huge, and the amount of energy is minimal. And that is why now nuclear power plants are considered the most promising option for further development.

NPP history

The first ideas regarding the use of the atom to generate electricity appeared in the USSR around the 40s of the XX century, almost 10 years before the creation of their own weapons of mass destruction on this basis. In 1948, the principle of operation of nuclear power plants was developed and at the same time it was possible for the first time in the world to power devices from atomic energy. In 1950, the United States completes the construction of a small nuclear reactor, which at that time can be considered the only power plant of this type on the planet. True, it was experimental and produced only 800 watts of power. At the same time, the foundation was being laid in the USSR for the world's first full-fledged nuclear power plant, although after commissioning it still did not produce electricity on an industrial scale. This reactor was used more to hone the technology.

From that moment began the mass construction of nuclear power plants around the world. In addition to the traditional leaders in this "race", the USA and the USSR, the first reactors appeared in:

1956 - UK.
1959 - France.
1961 - Germany.
1962 - Canada.
1964 - Sweden.
1966 - Japan.

The number of nuclear power plants being built was constantly increasing, until the Chernobyl disaster, after which the construction began to freeze and gradually many countries began to abandon nuclear energy. At the moment, new such power plants appear mainly in Russia and China. Some countries that previously planned to switch to another type of energy are gradually returning to the program, and another jump in the construction of nuclear power plants is possible in the near future. This is an obligatory stage in the development of mankind, at least until other efficient options for energy production are found.

Features of nuclear energy

The main plus is the generation of a huge amount of energy with minimal cost fuel with virtually no contamination. The principle of operation of a nuclear reactor at a nuclear power plant is based on a simple steam engine and uses water as the main element (not counting the fuel itself), therefore, from an environmental point of view, the harm is minimal. The potential danger of power plants of this type is greatly exaggerated. The causes of the Chernobyl disaster have not yet been reliably established (more on that below), and moreover, all the information collected as part of the investigation made it possible to modernize existing stations, eliminating even the unlikely options for radiation emissions. Ecologists sometimes say that such stations are a powerful source of thermal pollution, but this is also not entirely true. Indeed, hot water from the secondary circuit enters water bodies, but most often their artificial versions are used, created specifically for this, and in other cases, the share of such a temperature increase cannot be compared with pollution from other energy sources.

Fuel problem

Not the last role in the popularity of nuclear power plants is played by fuel - uranium-235. It requires much less than any other species with a simultaneous huge release of energy. The principle of operation of a nuclear power plant reactor implies the use of this fuel in the form of special “pills” placed in rods. In fact, the only difficulty in this case is to create just such a form. Nevertheless, information has recently begun to appear that the current world reserves will also not be enough for a long time. But this is already provided. The newest three-loop reactors run on uranium-238, which is very plentiful, and the fuel shortage problem will disappear for a long time.

The principle of operation of a double-circuit nuclear power plant

As mentioned above, it is based on a conventional steam engine. In short, the principle of operation of a nuclear power plant is to heat water from the primary circuit, which in turn heats the water of the secondary circuit to a state of steam. It protrudes into the turbine, rotating the blades, causing the generator to generate electricity. The “waste” steam enters the condenser and turns back into water. Thus, a practically closed cycle is obtained. In theory, all this could work even easier, using only one circuit, but this is already really unsafe, since the water in it, in theory, can be contaminated, which is excluded when using the system standard for most nuclear power plants with two water cycles isolated from each other.

The principle of operation of a three-loop nuclear power plant

It's already over modern power plants that run on uranium-238. Its reserves make up more than 99% of all radioactive elements in the world (hence the huge prospects for use). The principle of operation and design of a nuclear power plant of this type is already in the presence of as many as three circuits and the active use of liquid sodium. In general, everything remains about the same, but with minor additions. In the primary circuit, heated directly from the reactor, this liquid sodium circulates at a high temperature. The second circle is heated from the first and also uses the same liquid, but not as hot. And only then, already in the third circuit, water is used, which is heated from the second to the state of steam and rotates the turbine. The system turns out to be more complex technologically, but it is necessary to build such a nuclear power plant only once, and then it remains only to enjoy the fruits of labor.

Chernobyl

The principle of operation of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant is believed to have become the main cause of the disaster. Officially, there are two versions of what happened. One by one, the problem arose due to the incorrect actions of the reactor operators. According to the second - because of the unsuccessful design of the power plant. However, the principle of operation of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant was also used in other plants of this type, which function properly to this day. There is an opinion that there was a chain of accidents, which is almost impossible to repeat. This is a small earthquake in that area, an experiment with a reactor, minor problems in the design itself, and so on. Together, this caused the explosion. Nevertheless, the reason that caused a sharp increase in the power of the reactor when it should not have been is still unknown. There was even an opinion about a possible sabotage, but to this day it has not been possible to prove anything.

Fukushima

This is another example of a global catastrophe involving a nuclear power plant. And in this case, too, the cause was a chain of accidents. The station was reliably protected from earthquakes and tsunamis, which are not uncommon on the Japanese coast. Few could have imagined that both of these events would occur simultaneously. The principle of operation of the Fukushima NPP generator assumed the use of external energy sources to maintain the entire safety complex in operation. This is a reasonable measure, since it would be difficult to obtain energy from the station itself during the accident. Due to the earthquake and tsunami, all these sources went out of order, which caused the reactors to melt and a catastrophe occurred. Measures are now being taken to repair the damage. According to experts, it will take another 40 years.

Despite all its efficiency, nuclear energy is still quite expensive, because the principles of operation of the nuclear power plant steam generator and its other components imply huge construction costs that need to be recouped. Now electricity from coal and oil is still cheaper, but these resources will run out in the coming decades, and over the next few years, nuclear energy will be cheaper than anything. At the moment, clean electricity from alternative energy sources (wind and solar power plants) costs about 20 times more.

It is believed that the principle of operation of nuclear power plants does not allow building such plants quickly. It is not true. The construction of an average object of this type takes about 5 years.

Stations are perfectly protected not only from potential radiation releases, but also from most external factors. For example, if the terrorists chose any nuclear power plant instead of the twin towers, they would be able to cause only minimal damage to the surrounding infrastructure, which would not affect the operation of the reactor in any way.

Results

The principle of operation of nuclear power plants is practically the same as the principles of operation of most other traditional power plants. Steam energy is used everywhere. Hydroelectric power plants use the pressure of flowing water, and even those models that are powered by solar energy also use liquid that is heated to a boil and rotates turbines. The only exception to this rule is wind farms, in which the blades spin due to the movement of air masses.

Nuclear power plants

General provisions. Nuclear power plants (NPPs) are essentially thermal power plants that use the thermal energy of nuclear reactions.

The possibility of using nuclear fuel, mainly uranium 235 U, as a source of heat is associated with the implementation of a chain reaction of fission of matter and the release of a huge amount of energy. A self-sustaining and controlled chain reaction of fission of uranium nuclei is provided in a nuclear reactor. In view of the efficiency of fission of uranium 235 U nuclei during their bombardment with slow thermal neutrons, reactors based on slow thermal neutrons still prevail. The uranium isotope 235 U is usually used as a nuclear fuel, the content of which in natural uranium is 0.714%; the bulk of uranium is the isotope 238 U (99.28%). Nuclear fuel is usually used in solid form. It is enclosed in a protective shell. Such fuel elements are called fuel rods, they are installed in the working channels of the reactor core. The thermal energy released during the fission reaction is removed from the reactor core with the help of a coolant, which is pumped under pressure through each working channel or through the entire core. The most common coolant is water, which is thoroughly purified.

Water-cooled reactors can operate in water or steam mode. In the second case, steam is obtained directly in the reactor core.

During the fission of uranium or plutonium nuclei, fast neutrons are formed, the energy of which is high. In natural or weakly enriched uranium, where the content of 235 U is low, a fast neutron chain reaction does not develop. Therefore, fast neutrons are slowed down to thermal (slow) neutrons. As moderators, substances can be used that contain elements with a low atomic mass, which have a low absorption capacity with respect to neutrons. The main moderators are water, heavy water, graphite.

Currently, thermal neutron reactors are the most mastered. Such reactors are structurally simpler and easier to control than fast neutron reactors. However, a promising direction is the use of fast neutron reactors with expanded breeding of nuclear fuel - plutonium; thus most of the 238 U can be used.

At nuclear power plants in Russia, nuclear reactors of the following main types are used:

RBMK(high power reactor, channel type) - thermal neutron reactor, water-graphite;

VVER(pressure-cooled power reactor) - thermal neutron reactor, vessel type;

BN– fast neutron reactor with liquid metal sodium coolant.

The unit capacity of nuclear power units has reached 1500 MW. At present, it is believed that the unit capacity of the power unit nuclear power station limited not so much by technical considerations as by safety conditions in case of accidents with reactors.

Currently operating nuclear power station according to technological requirements, they work mainly in the base part of the load schedule of the power system with a duration of use of the installed capacity of 6500 ... 7000 h / year

NPP schemes. Technology system nuclear power station depends on the type of reactor, type of coolant and moderator, as well as on a number of other factors. The circuit can be single-circuit, double-circuit and three-circuit. Figure 1 shows as an example (1 - reactor; 2 - steam generator; 3 - turbine; 4 - transformer; 5 - generator; 6 - turbine condenser; 7 - condensate (feed) pump; 8 - main circulation pump.)

double circuit nuclear power station for power plant with reactor type VVER. It can be seen that this scheme is close to the scheme CES, however, instead of a fossil-fueled steam generator, a nuclear plant is used here.

Nuclear power plants, as well as CES, are built according to the block principle both in the thermal-mechanical and electrical parts.

Nuclear fuel has a very high calorific value (1 kg of 235 U replaces 2,900 tons of coal), so nuclear power station especially effective in areas poor in fuel resources, for example, in the European part of Russia.

It is advantageous to equip nuclear power plants with high-capacity power units. Then, in terms of their technical and economic indicators, they are not inferior to CES, and in some cases exceed them. At present, reactors with an electric power of 440 and 1000 MW of the type VVER, as well as 1000 and 1500 MW types RBMK. In this case, the power unit is formed as follows: the reactor is combined with two turbine units (reactor VVER-440 and two turbine units of 220 MW each; reactor VVER-1000 and two turbine units of 500 MW each; reactor RBMK-1500 and two turbine units of 750 MW each) or with a turbine unit of the same capacity (a 1000 MW reactor and a 1000 MW turbine unit of unit capacity).

Promising are nuclear power plants with fast neutron reactors, which can be used to produce heat and electricity, as well as for the reproduction of nuclear fuel. Reactor type BN has an active zone (Figure 2, a),

Scheme of execution of the reactor core

where a nuclear reaction occurs with the release of a stream of fast neutrons. These neutrons act on elements from 238 U, which is not usually used in nuclear reactions, and turn it into plutonium 239 Pu, which can later be used for nuclear power station as nuclear fuel. The heat of the nuclear reaction is removed by liquid sodium and used to generate electricity.

Scheme nuclear power station with reactor type BN(Figure 2, b-) Technology system - ( 1 - reactor; 2 – primary circuit heat exchanger; 3 - heat exchanger (drum) of the second circuit; 4 - steam turbine; 5 - step-up transformer; 6 - generator; 7 - capacitor; 8,9,10 - pumps)

three-loop, two of them use liquid sodium (in the reactor loop and intermediate). Liquid sodium reacts violently with water and steam. Therefore, in order to avoid contact of radioactive sodium in the primary circuit with water or water vapor in case of accidents, a second (intermediate) circuit is performed, the coolant in which is non-radioactive sodium. The working fluid of the third circuit is water and steam.

Currently, a number of power units of the type BN, of which the largest BN-600.

Nuclear power plants have no flue gas emissions and no waste in the form of ash and slag. However, the specific heat release into the cooling water nuclear power station more than TES, due to the higher specific consumption of steam and, consequently, the higher specific consumption of cooling water. Therefore, most of the new nuclear power station It is planned to install cooling towers, in which the heat from the cooling water is removed to the atmosphere.

feature nuclear power station is the need to dispose of radioactive waste. This is done in special burial grounds, which exclude the possibility of exposure to radiation on people.

To avoid the influence of possible radioactive releases nuclear power station on people in case of accidents, special measures are taken to improve the reliability of equipment (duplication of the security system, etc.), and a sanitary protection zone is created around the station.

The use of nuclear energy makes it possible to expand energy resources, thereby contributing to the conservation of fossil fuel resources, to reduce the cost of electrical energy, which is especially important for regions close to fuel sources, to reduce atmospheric pollution, unload transport transporting fuel, help supply electricity and heat to industries using new technologies (for example, those engaged in seawater desalination and the expansion of fresh water resources).

With regard to pollution, when using nuclear power station there is no problem of lack of oxygen in the environment, which is typical for a thermal power plant due to its use for burning fossil fuels. There is no ash emission with flue gases. In connection with the problem of combating air pollution, it is important to note the expediency of introducing nuclear CHP, because CHP are usually located near heat consumers, industrial centers and large settlements, where the cleanliness of the environment is especially necessary.

At work NUCLEAR POWER STATION, not consuming organic fuel(coal, oil, gas), oxides of sulfur, nitrogen, carbon dioxide are not emitted into the atmosphere. This reduces the greenhouse effect leading to global climate change.

In many countries, nuclear power plants already generate more than half of the electricity (in France - about 75%, in Belgium - about 65%), in Russia only 15%.

Lessons from the Chernobyl accident nuclear power station(in April 1986) demanded a significant (many times) increase in security nuclear power station and forced to abandon the construction nuclear power station in densely populated and seismically active areas. Nevertheless, taking into account the environmental situation, nuclear energy should be considered as a promising one.

In Russia on nuclear power station about 120 billion kWh of electrical energy per year was stably generated.

According to Rosenergoatom, further development of nuclear energy will be observed both in terms of capacity nuclear power station, and by the amount of generated electrical energy per nuclear power station Russia.

Nuclear power plants General provisions. Nuclear power plants (NPPs) are essentially thermal power plants that use the thermal energy of nuclear reactions. The possibility of using nuclear fuel, mainly uranium 235U, in

Nuclear power plant

Nuclear power plant (NPP)- a complex of technical structures designed to generate electrical energy by using the energy released during a controlled nuclear reaction.

In the second half of the 40s, even before the completion of work on the creation of the first atomic bomb (its test, as is known, took place on August 29, 1949), Soviet scientists began to develop the first projects for the peaceful use of atomic energy, the general direction of which immediately became electric power industry.

In 1948, at the suggestion of I.V. Kurchatov and in accordance with the task of the party and the government, the first work began on the practical application of atomic energy to generate electricity

In May 1950, near the village of Obninskoye, Kaluga Region, work began on the construction of the world's first nuclear power plant.

The world's first nuclear power plant with a capacity of 5 MW was launched on June 27, 1954 in the USSR, in the city of Obninsk, located in the Kaluga region. In 1958, the first stage of the Siberian Nuclear Power Plant with a capacity of 100 MW was put into operation (the total design capacity is 600 MW). In the same year, the construction of the Beloyarsk industrial nuclear power plant began, and on April 26, 1964, the generator of the 1st stage gave current to consumers. In September 1964, Unit 1 of the Novovoronezh NPP was put into operation with a capacity of 210 MW. The second unit with a capacity of 350 MW was put into operation in December 1969. In 1973 the Leningrad NPP was put into operation.

Outside the USSR, the first industrial-purpose nuclear power plant with a capacity of 46 MW was put into operation in 1956 at Calder Hall (Great Britain). A year later, a 60 MW nuclear power plant was put into operation in Shippingport (USA).

The world leaders in the production of nuclear electricity are: USA (788.6 billion kWh/year), France (426.8 billion kWh/year), Japan (273.8 billion kWh/year), Germany (158 .4 billion kWh/year) and Russia (154.7 billion kWh/year).

At the beginning of 2004, there were 441 nuclear power reactors operating in the world, the Russian TVEL OJSC supplies fuel for 75 of them.

The largest nuclear power plant in Europe is the Zaporozhye NPP near the city of Energodar (Zaporozhye region, Ukraine), the construction of which began in 1980 and by the middle of 2008, 6 nuclear reactors with a total capacity of 6 GigaWatt are operating.

The largest nuclear power plant in the world, Kashiwazaki-Kariwa in terms of installed capacity (as of 2008), is located in the Japanese city of Kashiwazaki, Niigata Prefecture - there are five boiling water reactors (BWR) and two advanced boiling nuclear reactors (ABWR) in operation, the total capacity of which is 8.212 GigaWatt.

Classification

By type of reactor

Nuclear power plants are classified according to the reactors installed on them:

Thermal neutron reactors using special moderators to increase the probability of absorption of a neutron by the nuclei of fuel atoms

light water reactors

heavy water reactors

Fast neutron reactors

Subcritical reactors using external neutron sources

Fusion reactors

By type of energy released

According to the type of energy supplied, nuclear power plants can be divided into:

Nuclear power plants (NPPs) designed to generate electricity only

Nuclear combined heat and power plants (NPP) generating both electricity and heat

However, all nuclear power plants in Russia have cogeneration plants designed to heat network water.

Operating principle

The figure shows a diagram of the operation of a nuclear power plant with a double-circuit water-cooled power reactor. The energy released in the reactor core is transferred to the primary coolant. Next, the coolant enters the heat exchanger (steam generator), where it heats the secondary circuit water to a boil. The resulting steam enters the turbines that rotate the electric generators. At the outlet of the turbines, the steam enters the condenser, where it is cooled by a large amount of water coming from the reservoir.

In addition to water, molten sodium or gas can also be used as a coolant in various reactors. The use of sodium makes it possible to simplify the design of the reactor core shell (unlike the water circuit, the pressure in the sodium circuit does not exceed atmospheric pressure), to get rid of the pressure compensator, but creates its own difficulties associated with the increased chemical activity of this metal.

The total number of circuits may vary for different reactors, the diagram in the figure is for VVER type reactors (Public Water Power Reactor). RBMK type reactors (High Power Channel Type Reactor) use one water circuit, and BN reactors (Fast Neutron Reactor) use two sodium and one water circuits.

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages of nuclear power plants:

No harmful emissions;

Emissions of radioactive substances are several times less than coal el. stations of similar capacity (ash from coal-fired thermal power plants contains a percentage of uranium and thorium sufficient for their profitable extraction);

A small amount of fuel used and the possibility of its reuse after processing;

High power: 1000-1600 MW per unit;

Low cost of energy, especially heat.

Disadvantages of nuclear power plants:

Irradiated fuel is dangerous, requiring complex and expensive reprocessing and storage measures;

Variable power operation is undesirable for thermal neutron reactors;

The consequences of a possible incident are extremely severe, although its probability is quite low;

Large capital investments, both specific, per 1 MW of installed capacity for units with a capacity of less than 700-800 MW, and general, necessary for the construction of the station, its infrastructure, as well as in case of possible liquidation.

Safety of nuclear power plants

Rostekhnadzor oversees the safety of Russian NPPs.

Nuclear safety is regulated by the following documents:

General provisions for ensuring the safety of nuclear power plants. OPB-88/97 (PNAE G-01-011-97)

Nuclear Safety Rules for Reactor Installations at Nuclear Power Plants. NBY RU AS-89 (PNAE G - 1 - 024 - 90)

Radiation safety is regulated by the following documents:

Sanitary rules of nuclear power plants. SP AS-99

Basic rules for ensuring radiation safety. OSPORB-02

prospects

Despite these shortcomings, nuclear energy seems to be the most promising. Alternative methods of obtaining energy, due to the energy of the tides, wind, the Sun, geothermal sources, etc., are currently characterized by a low level of energy produced and its low concentration. In addition, these types of energy generation carry their own risks for the environment and tourism (“dirty” production of photovoltaic cells, the danger of wind farms for birds, and changes in wave dynamics.

Academician Anatoly Aleksandrov: "Nuclear energy on a large scale will be the greatest boon for mankind and will solve a number of acute problems."

Currently, international projects are being developed for new generation nuclear reactors, such as GT-MGR, which will improve safety and increase the efficiency of nuclear power plants.

Russia has begun construction of the world's first floating nuclear power plant, which will solve the problem of energy shortages in remote coastal areas of the country. [source?]

The USA and Japan are developing mini-nuclear power plants with a capacity of about 10-20 MW for the purpose of heat and power supply to individual industries, residential complexes, and in the future - individual houses. With a decrease in the capacity of the installation, the expected scale of production increases. Small-sized reactors (see, for example, Hyperion NPP) are created using safe technologies that greatly reduce the possibility of leakage of nuclear material.

Hydrogen production

The US government has adopted the Atomic Hydrogen Initiative. Work is underway (together with South Korea) to create a new generation of nuclear reactors capable of producing hydrogen in large quantities. INEEL (Idaho National Engineering Environmental Laboratory) predicts that one next-generation nuclear power plant will produce hydrogen equivalent to 750,000 liters of gasoline daily.

Research is being funded to produce hydrogen at existing nuclear power plants.

Thermonuclear energy

Even more interesting, albeit a relatively distant prospect, is the use of nuclear fusion energy. Thermonuclear reactors, according to calculations, will consume less fuel per unit of energy, and both this fuel itself (deuterium, lithium, helium-3) and their synthesis products are non-radioactive and, therefore, environmentally safe.

At present, with the participation of Russia in the south of France, the construction of the international experimental thermonuclear reactor ITER is underway.

NPP construction

Site selection

One of the main requirements in assessing the possibility of building a nuclear power plant is to ensure the safety of its operation for the surrounding population, which is regulated by radiation safety standards. One of the measures to protect the environment - the territory and the population from harmful effects during the operation of a nuclear power plant is the organization of a sanitary protection zone around it. When choosing a site for the construction of a nuclear power plant, the possibility of creating a sanitary protection zone defined by a circle, the center of which is the NPP ventilation stack, should be taken into account. Residents are prohibited from living in the sanitary protection zone. Particular attention should be paid to the study of wind regimes in the area of nuclear power plant construction in order to locate the nuclear power plant on the leeward side in relation to settlements. Based on the possibility of emergency leakage of active fluids, preference is given to sites with deep standing groundwater.

When choosing a site for the construction of a nuclear power plant, technical water supply is of great importance. The nuclear power plant is a major water user. The water consumption of NPPs is negligible, and the use of water is large, that is, the water is mostly returned to the water supply source. Nuclear power plants, as well as all industrial facilities under construction, are subject to requirements for the preservation of the environment. When choosing a site for the construction of a nuclear power plant, the following requirements must be followed:

lands allotted for the construction of nuclear power plants are unsuitable or unsuitable for agricultural production;

the construction site is located near reservoirs and rivers, in coastal areas that are not flooded by flood waters;

the soils of the site allow the construction of buildings and structures without additional costly measures;

the groundwater level is below the depth of the basements of buildings and underground engineering communications, and no additional costs are required for dewatering during the construction of a nuclear power plant;

the site has a relatively flat surface with a slope that provides surface drainage, while earthworks are kept to a minimum.

NPP construction sites, as a rule, are not allowed to be located:

in active karst zones;

in areas of heavy (mass) landslides and mudflows;

in areas of possible action of snow avalanches;

in swampy and waterlogged areas with a constant influx of pressure groundwater,

in areas of large failures as a result of mine workings;

in areas subject to catastrophic events such as tsunamis, etc.

in areas where minerals occur;

In order to determine the possibility of building a nuclear power plant in the designated areas and to compare options in terms of geological, topographical and hydrometeorological conditions, at the stage of site selection, specific surveys are carried out for each considered option for placing a power plant.

Engineering-geological surveys are carried out in two stages. At the first stage, materials are collected on previously conducted surveys in the area under consideration and the degree of knowledge of the proposed construction site is determined. At the second stage, if necessary, special engineering and geological surveys are carried out with well drilling and soil sampling, as well as a reconnaissance geological survey of the site. Based on the results of office processing of the collected data and additional surveys, an engineering-geological characteristic of the construction area should be obtained, which determines:

relief and geomorphology of the territory;

stratigraphy, thickness and lithological composition of primary and Quaternary deposits, common in the area to a depth of 50-100 m;

the quantity, nature, level of occurrence and conditions for the distribution of individual aquifers within the total depth;

the nature and intensity of physical and geological processes and phenomena.

When conducting engineering and geological surveys at the site selection stage, information is collected on the availability of local building materials - developed quarries and deposits of stone, sand, gravel and other building materials. In the same period, the possibilities of using groundwater for technological and domestic water supply are determined. When designing nuclear power plants, as well as other large industrial complexes, situational construction plans, schemes of master plans and master plans industrial site of the nuclear power plant.

Space-planning solutions for buildings

The goal of designing nuclear power plants is to create the most rational design. The main requirements that nuclear power plant buildings must meet:

convenience for the implementation of the main technological process for which they are intended (functional expediency of the building);

reliability when exposed to the environment, strength and durability (technical feasibility of the building);

profitability, but not at the expense of durability (economic feasibility).

aesthetics (architectural and artistic expediency);

The layout of the nuclear power plant is created by a team of designers of various specialties.

Building structures of buildings and structures

The composition of the nuclear power plant includes buildings and structures for various purposes and, accordingly, of various designs. This is a multi-storey and multi-span building of the main building with massive reinforced concrete structures enclosing the radioactive circuit; stand-alone buildings of auxiliary systems, for example, chemical water treatment, diesel generator, nitrogen station, usually made in prefabricated reinforced concrete standard structures; underground channels and tunnels, passable and impassable for placement of cable flows and communication pipelines between systems; elevated overpasses connecting the main building and auxiliary buildings and structures, as well as the buildings of the administrative sanitary building. The most complex and responsible building of a nuclear power plant is the main building, which is a system of structures formed in general case frame building structures and arrays of the reactor compartment.

Features of engineering equipment

A feature of nuclear power plants, as well as any buildings of nuclear installations, is the presence of ionizing radiation during operation. This main distinguishing factor must be taken into account when designing. The main source of radiation at nuclear power plants is a nuclear reactor, in which the fission reaction of fuel nuclei occurs. This reaction is accompanied by all known types of radiation.

Nuclear fuel cycle. Nuclear power is a complex industry that includes many industrial processes that together form the fuel cycle. There are different types of fuel cycles, depending on the type of reactor and how the final stage of the cycle proceeds.

Typically, the fuel cycle consists of the following processes. Uranium ore is mined in the mines. The ore is crushed to separate the uranium dioxide, and the radioactive waste is dumped. The resulting uranium oxide (yellow cake) is converted into uranium hexafluoride, a gaseous compound. To increase the concentration of uranium-235, uranium hexafluoride is enriched at isotope separation plants. The enriched uranium is then converted back into solid uranium dioxide, from which fuel pellets are made. Fuel elements (fuel rods) are assembled from pellets, which are combined into assemblies for introduction into the core of a nuclear reactor of a nuclear power plant. The spent fuel extracted from the reactor has a high level of radiation and, after cooling on the territory of the power plant, is sent to a special storage facility. It also provides for the disposal of waste with a low level of radiation that accumulates during the operation and maintenance of the station. At the end of the service life, the reactor itself must be decommissioned (with decontamination and disposal of the reactor units). Each stage of the fuel cycle is regulated in such a way as to ensure the safety of people and the protection of the environment.

Power plants in Bulgaria Nuclear power plants Inside the case, the pressure reaches 160 ... they will seriously compete with hydroelectric power plants, power and atomic power plants because they are environmentally friendly...

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT(NPP), a power plant that uses the heat released in a nuclear reactor as a result of a controlled chain reaction of nuclear fission of heavy elements to generate electricity (in the main. $\ce(^(233)U, ^(235)U, ^(239)Pu)$). The heat generated in core nuclear reactor, is transmitted (directly or through an intermediate coolant) working fluid (predominantly water vapor), which drives steam turbines with turbogenerators.

A nuclear power plant is, in principle, an analogue of a conventional thermal power plant(TPP), in which a nuclear reactor is used instead of a steam boiler furnace. However, despite the similarity of the fundamental thermodynamic schemes of nuclear and thermal power plants, there are also significant differences between them. The main ones are the environmental and economic advantages of nuclear power plants over thermal power plants: nuclear power plants do not need oxygen to burn fuel; they practically do not pollute the environment with sulfurous and other gases; nuclear fuel has a significantly higher calorific value (fission of 1 g of U or Pu isotopes releases 22,500 kWh, which is equivalent to the energy contained in 3,000 kg hard coal), which dramatically reduces its volume and the cost of transportation and handling; world energy resources of nuclear fuel significantly exceed the natural reserves of hydrocarbon fuel. In addition, the use of nuclear reactors (of any type) as an energy source requires a change in the thermal schemes adopted at conventional thermal power plants and the introduction of new elements into the structure of nuclear power plants, for example. biological protection (see Radiation safety), systems for reloading spent fuel, a fuel pool, etc. The transfer of thermal energy from a nuclear reactor to steam turbines is carried out by means of a coolant circulating through sealed pipelines, in combination with circulation pumps that form the so-called. reactor circuit or loop. Normal and heavy water, water vapor, liquid metals, organic liquids, and some gases (for example, helium, carbon dioxide) are used as heat carriers. The circuits through which the coolant circulates are always closed to avoid leakage of radioactivity, their number is determined mainly by the type of nuclear reactor, as well as the properties of the working fluid and coolant.

At nuclear power plants with a single-loop scheme (Fig., a) the coolant is also a working fluid, the entire circuit is radioactive and therefore surrounded by biological protection. When using an inert gas as a coolant, such as helium, which is not activated in the neutron field of the core, biological protection is necessary only around the nuclear reactor, since the coolant is not radioactive. The coolant - the working fluid, heating up in the reactor core, then enters the turbine, where its thermal energy is converted into mechanical energy and then in the electric generator - into electrical energy. The most common are single-circuit nuclear power plants with nuclear reactors, in which the coolant and neutron moderator serves as water. The working fluid is formed directly in the core when the coolant is heated to boiling. Such reactors are called boiling water reactors, in the world nuclear power industry they are referred to as BWR (Boiling Water Reactor). In Russia, boiling water reactors with a water coolant and a graphite moderator - RBMK (high power channel reactor) have become widespread. The use of high-temperature gas-cooled reactors (with helium coolant) - HTGR (HTGR) at NPPs is considered promising. The efficiency of single-loop NPPs operating in a closed gas turbine cycle can exceed 45–50%.

With a two-circuit scheme (Fig., b) the primary coolant heated in the core is transferred to the steam generator ( heat exchanger) thermal energy to the working fluid in the second circuit, after which it is returned to the core by the circulation pump. The primary coolant can be water, liquid metal or gas, and the working fluid is water, which turns into water vapor in the steam generator. The primary circuit is radioactive and is surrounded by biological shielding (except when an inert gas is used as a coolant). The second circuit is usually radiation safe, since the working fluid and the coolant of the primary circuit do not come into contact. The most widespread are double-loop nuclear power plants with reactors in which water is the primary coolant and moderator, and steam is the working fluid. This type of reactor is referred to as VVER - pressurized water power. reactor (PWR - Power Water Reactor). The efficiency of nuclear power plants with VVER reaches 40%. In terms of thermodynamic efficiency, such NPPs are inferior to single-loop NPPs with HTGR if the temperature of the gas coolant at the exit from the core exceeds 700 °C.

Three-circuit thermal schemes (Fig., in) are used only in those cases when it is necessary to completely exclude the contact of the coolant of the first (radioactive) circuit with the working fluid; for example, when the core is cooled with liquid sodium, its contact with the working fluid (steam) can lead to a major accident. Liquid sodium as a coolant is used only in nuclear reactor x on fast neutrons (FBR - Fast Breeder Reactor). A feature of nuclear power plants with a fast neutron reactor is that, simultaneously with the generation of electrical and thermal energy, they reproduce fissile isotopes suitable for use in thermal nuclear reactors (see Fig. Breeder Reactor).

Nuclear power plant turbines usually operate on saturated or slightly superheated steam. When using turbines operating on superheated steam, saturated steam is passed through the reactor core (through special channels) or through a special heat exchanger - a hydrocarbon-fueled superheater to increase the temperature and pressure. The thermodynamic efficiency of the NPP cycle is the higher, the higher the parameters of the coolant, the working fluid, which are determined by the technological capabilities and properties of structural materials used in the NPP cooling circuits.

At nuclear power plants, much attention is paid to the purification of the coolant, since the natural impurities present in it, as well as corrosion products that accumulate during the operation of equipment and pipelines, are sources of radioactivity. The degree of purity of the coolant largely determines the level of the radiation situation in the premises of the NPP.

Nuclear power plants are almost always built near energy consumers, because the cost of transporting nuclear fuel to nuclear power plants, in contrast to hydrocarbon fuel for thermal power plants, has little effect on the cost of generated energy (usually, nuclear fuel in power reactors is replaced with a new one once every several years). years), and the transmission of both electrical and thermal energy over long distances significantly increases their cost. Nuclear power plants are built on the leeward side of the nearest settlement, a sanitary protection zone and an observation zone are created around it, where the population is unacceptable. Control and measuring equipment for continuous monitoring of the environment is placed in the observation zone.

NPP - the basis nuclear power. Their main purpose is the production of electricity (nuclear power plants of the condensing type) or the combined production of electricity and heat (nuclear combined heat and power plants - ATES). At the NPP, part of the steam exhausted in the turbines is diverted to the so-called. network heat exchangers for heating water circulating in closed heat supply networks. In some cases, the thermal energy of nuclear reactors can only be used for heating needs (nuclear heat supply stations - AST). In this case, the heated water from the heat exchangers of the first and second circuits enters the network heat exchanger, where it gives off heat to the network water and then returns to the circuit.

One of the advantages of nuclear power plants compared to conventional thermal power plants is their high environmental friendliness, which is maintained with qualification. operation of nuclear reactors. The existing NPP radiation safety barriers (fuel rod cladding, nuclear reactor vessel, etc.) prevent contamination of the coolant with radioactive fission products. A protective shell (containment) is being erected over the reactor hall of the NPP to prevent radioactive materials from entering the environment during the most severe accident - depressurization of the primary circuit, melting of the core. NPP personnel training provides for training on special simulators (NPP simulators) for practicing actions both in normal and emergency situations. The NPP has a number of services that ensure the normal functioning of the station, the safety of its personnel (for example, dosimetric control, ensuring sanitary and hygienic requirements, etc.). On the territory of the nuclear power plant, temporary storage facilities are created for fresh and spent nuclear fuel, for liquid and solid radioactive waste that appears during its operation. All this leads to the fact that the cost of an installed kilowatt of power at nuclear power plants is more than 30% higher than the cost of a kilowatt at thermal power plants. However, the cost of energy supplied to the consumer, generated at nuclear power plants, is lower than at thermal power plants, due to the very small share of the fuel component in this cost. Due to high efficiency and features of power control, NPPs are usually used in basic modes, while the installed capacity utilization factor of NPPs can exceed 80%. As the share of nuclear power plants in the total energy balance of the region increases, they can also operate in a maneuver mode (to cover load irregularities in the local energy system). The ability of nuclear power plants to operate for a long time without changing fuel allows them to be used in remote regions. NPPs have been developed whose equipment layout is based on the principles implemented in shipboard nuclear power plants. installations (see Nuclear ship). Such nuclear power plants can be placed, for example, on a barge. Promising nuclear power plants with HTGR, generating thermal energy for the implementation of technological processes in the metallurgical, chemical and oil industries, in the gasification of coal and shale, in the production of synthetic hydrocarbon fuels. The NPP operation life is 25–30 years. The decommissioning of a nuclear power plant, the dismantling of the reactor and the reclamation of its site to the state of a “green lawn” is a complex and expensive organizational and technical measure carried out according to plans developed in each specific case.

The world's first operating nuclear power plant with a capacity of 5000 kW was launched in Russia in 1954 in the city of Obninsk. In 1956, the nuclear power plant at Calder Hall in the UK (46 MW) was put into operation, in 1957 the nuclear power plant at Shippingport in the USA (60 MW) was put into operation. In 1974, the world's first thermal power plant, the Bilibinskaya (Chukotka Autonomous Okrug), was launched. Mass construction of large economical nuclear power plants began in the 2nd half. 1960s However, after the accident (1986) at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, the attractiveness of nuclear energy has noticeably decreased, and in a number of countries that have sufficient own traditional fuel and energy resources or access to them, the construction of new nuclear power plants has actually stopped (Russia, USA, Great Britain, Germany). At the beginning of the 21st century, on March 11, 2011, in the Pacific Ocean off the east coast of Japan, as a result of a strong earthquake with a magnitude of 9.0 to 9.1 and the subsequent tsunami(wave height reached 40.5 m) at the Fukushima1 nuclear power plant (Okuma Township, Fukushima Prefecture) the largesttechnological disaster– radiation accident of the maximum level 7 according to the International Nuclear Event Scale. The tsunami hit disabled external power supplies and backup diesel generators, which caused the inoperability of all normal and emergency cooling systems and led to the melting of the reactor core at power units 1, 2 and 3 in the first days of the accident. In December 2013, the nuclear power plant was officially closed. As of the first half of 2016, a high level of radiation makes it impossible to work not only for people in reactor buildings, but also for robots, which fail due to a high level of radiation. It is planned that the removal of soil layers to special storage facilities and its destruction will take 30 years.

31 countries of the world use nuclear power plants. Valid for 2015 is approx. 440 nuclear power reactors (power units) with a total capacity of more than 381,000 MW (381 GW). OK. 70 nuclear reactors are under construction. The world leader in terms of share in total electricity generation is France (second place in terms of installed capacity), in which nuclear power is 76.9%.

The largest nuclear power plant in the world for 2015 (in terms of installed capacity) - Kashiwazaki-Kariwa (Kashiwazaki, Niigata Prefecture, Japan). There are 5 boiling water reactors (BWRs) and 2 advanced boiling water reactors (ABWRs) in operation, with a combined capacity of 8212 MW (8.212 GW).

The largest nuclear power plant in Europe is the Zaporozhye NPP (Energodar, Zaporozhye region, Ukraine). Since 1996, 6 power units with VVER-1000 reactors have been operating with a total capacity of 6,000 MW (6 GW).

Table 1. The largest consumers of nuclear power in the world
State	Number of power units	Total power (MW)	Total generated electricity (billion kWh/year)
USA	104	101 456	863,63
France	58	63 130	439,74
Japan	48	42 388	263,83
Russia	34	24 643	177,39
South Korea	23	20 717	149,2
China	23	19 907	123,81
Canada	19	13 500	98,59
Ukraine	15	13 107	83,13
Germany	9	12 074	91,78
Great Britain	16	9373	57,92

The United States and Japan are developing mini-nuclear power plants with a capacity of about 10–20 MW for heat and power supply to individual industries, residential complexes, and, in the future, individual houses. Small-sized reactors are created using safe technologies that greatly reduce the possibility of leakage of nuclear material.

As of 2015, 10 NPPs operate in Russia, which operate 34 power units with a total capacity of 24,643 MW (24.643 GW), of which 18 power units are with VVER-type reactors (including 11 VVER-1000 power units and 6 VVER-440 power units of various modifications); 15 power units with channel reactors (11 power units with RBMK-1000 type reactors and 4 power units with EGP-6 type reactors - Energy Heterogeneous Loop Reactor with 6 coolant circulation loops, electric power 12 MW); 1 power unit with sodium-cooled fast neutron reactor BN-600 (1 power unit BN-800 is in the process of being put into commercial operation). According to the Federal target program"Development of the nuclear power industry complex of Russia", by 2025 the share of electricity generated at nuclear power plants of the Russian Federation should increase from 17 to 25% and amount to approx. 30.5 GW. It is planned to build 26 new power units, 6 new nuclear power plants, two of which are floating (Table 2).

Table 2. NPPs operating on the territory of the Russian Federation
NPP name	Number of power units	Years of commissioning of power units	Total installed capacity (MW)	Reactor type
Balakovo NPP (near Balakovo)	4	1985, 1987, 1988, 1993	4000	VVER-1000
Kalinin NPP [125 km from Tver on the banks of the Udomlya River (Tver region)]	4	1984, 1986, 2004, 2011	4000	VVER-1000
Kursk NPP (near the city of Kurchatov on the left bank of the Seim River)	4	1976, 1979, 1983, 1985	4000	RBMK-1000
Leningrad NPP (near Sosnovy Bor)	4 under construction - 4	1973, 1975, 1979, 1981	4000	RBMK-1000 (the first plant in the country with reactors of this type)
Rostov NPP (located on the banks of the Tsimlyansk reservoir, 13.5 km from the city of Volgodonsk)	3	2001, 2010, 2015	3100	VVER-1000
Smolensk NPP (3 km from the satellite town of Desnogorsk)	3	1982, 1985, 1990	3000	RBMK-1000
Novovoronezh NPP (near Novovoronezh)	5; (2 - withdrawn), under construction - 2.	1964 and 1969 (withdrawn), 1971, 1972, 1980	1800	VVER-440; VVER-1000
Kola NPP (200 km south of Murmansk on the shores of Lake Imandra)	4	1973, 1974, 1981, 1984	1760	VVER-440
Beloyarsk NPP (near Zarechny)	2	1980, 2015	600 800	BN-600 BN-800
Bilibino NPP	4	1974 (2), 1975, 1976	48	EGP-6

Projected NPPs in the Russian Federation

Since 2008, according to the new project NPP-2006 (the project of the Russian nuclear power plant of the new generation "3+" with improved technical and economic indicators), Novovoronezh NPP-2 (near Novovoronezh NPP) is being built, which provides for the use of VVER-1200 reactors. The construction of 2 power units with a total capacity of 2400 MW is underway, in the future it is planned to build 2 more.

The Baltic NPP provides for the use of a VVER-1200 reactor plant with a capacity of 1200 MW; power units - 2. The total installed capacity is 2300 MW. Commissioning of the first unit is planned for 2020. federal agency Atomic Energy of Russia is conducting a project to create low-power floating nuclear power plants. The Akademik Lomonosov nuclear power plant under construction will be the world's first floating nuclear power plant. The floating station can be used to generate electricity and heat, as well as to desalinate sea water. It can produce from 40 to 240 thousand m 2 of fresh water per day. The installed electric power of each reactor is 35 MW. Commissioning of the station is planned for 2018.

International projects of Russia on nuclear energy

23.9.2013 Russia handed over to Iran the operation of the Bushehr NPP (Bushir) , near the town of Bushehr (Bushir stop); number of power units - 3 (1 built, 2 - under construction); reactor type - VVER-1000. NPP "Kudankulam", near the city of Kudankulam (Tamil Nadu, India); number of power units - 4 (1 - in operation, 3 - under construction); reactor type - VVER-1000. NPP "Akkuyu", near the city of Mersin (il Mersin, Turkey); number of power units - 4 (under construction); reactor type - VVER-1200; Belarusian NPP (Ostrovets, Grodno region, Belarus); number of power units - 2 (under construction); reactor type - VVER-1200. NPP Hanhikivi 1 (Cape Hanhikivi, Pohjois-Pohjanmaa region, Finland); number of power units - 1 (under construction); reactor type - VVER-1200.

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