Rational consumer behavior for society. Rational consumer behavior. Types of rational behavior

Inflation - feature economic history of all countries of the world. It fundamentally transforms the rules of economic exchange and has a powerful effect on consumer behavior.

The rise in prices is one of the main factors of concern for Russians. To the question "What problems of our society worry you the most and do you consider them the most acute?" in January 1997, 55.1%, and in January 1998, 58% of the respondents noted an increase in prices (Golov 2-8.03.1998). These are indications of sentiment for a fairly stable period. The alarm is caused not by the rise in prices per se, but by their rise against the background of a lack of wage growth or slow rates of its growth.

During periods of rapid price growth in 1992-1993, since August 1998, this factor turns into the main headache for consumers, into a factor without which no economic decision is made.

The first phase of consumer reaction.“Experience shows that the population in general very slowly understands the situation and finds a way out of it. In the beginning, the change in habits takes place even in reverse direction and eases the government's position. The population is so accustomed to the idea that money is the final measure of value that in the initial period of price increases it considers it transitory and therefore saves money and refrains from spending in the belief that it has become the owner of a greater real value in monetary form than before. "... So in 1923, the classic of the English economic theory J. Keynes (Keynes 1993: 110). If I did not know who the author of these words was, then I could easily accept the above quote as a description of the experience of Russian inflation, which I observed from a very close distance.

The second phase of consumer reaction.“But sooner or later the second phase comes. The population comes to the conclusion that the owners of the papers bear a special tax and cover government expenses, and they begin to change their habits and try to minimize their paper cash "(Keynes 1993: 111).

This is accomplished in a number of ways: (1) money is placed in various things, such as jewelry or household items. (2) The population can reduce the amount allocated for household expenses and the average time during which these amounts are spent. So, J. Keynes gives an example from the history of early Soviet Russia during the period of inflation: a merchant, having sold a pound of cheese, rushed with his rubles to the market to immediately replenish stock, exchanging money for cheese before it rose in price again. There was even a joke about a gentleman who, when ordering beer in a cafe, immediately ordered another glass, preferring to drink settled beer, but to avoid the risk of price increases. In Vienna during the same period, exchange offices were created at every step, where it was possible to change the local currency a few minutes after receiving it into Swiss francs (Keynes 1993: 111). After 1992, Moscow and other large cities also began to shock the abundance of exchange offices, giving foreigners the impression that the whole country was about to go abroad.

In an effort to quickly get rid of money that is dwindling before our eyes, part of the population finds itself in a situation where there is regularly an acute shortage of cash to meet even the most urgent needs. Here you have to borrow, but who gives loans during inflation, without sacrificing their own interests?

Another consequence of the drive to get rid of cash is that the goods usually acquired as a result of more or less long-term savings become unavailable. All the money is spent on current consumption, on little things, sometimes even completely unnecessary, that can be bought immediately after receiving a salary.

The same interest in "getting rid of money" also leads to the desire to buy many consumer goods in large batches, which allows one to get away from inflation and not face the problem of hunger. Most often this is the purchase of food for future use.

In general, the behavior of people during inflation resembles their behavior during the period of domination of the administrative system with its characteristic deficit: here and there there is a desire to turn their money of little value into a commodity. However, there is also a significant difference: inflation in the market economy significantly restricts demand at a constantly growing price level, preventing a total deficit.

The natural consequence of inflation is the flight from inflation-affected money by converting it into a stable foreign currency. As a result, foreign currency acquires the functions of a means of payment in foreign territory, functions of a store of value, etc. In the context of inflation, the demand for gold and other jewelry, which is used as a means of accumulation and flight from inflation, increases sharply.

Sources used and analyzed:

1.Keynes J.M. Selected works. M., 1993.

2.Lurie A. The Language of Clouthes. The Definitive Guide to People Watching through the Ages. Hamlyn Paperbacks, 1983.

3.McNeal J. An Introduction to Consumer Behavior. New York, London, Sydney, Toronto, 1973.

4.Schiffman L.G., Kanuk L.L. Consumer Behavior. 6th edition. L., Sydney, Toronto, 1997.

5.Stone G.P. City, Shoppers and Urban Identification: Observations on the Social Psychology of City Life // The American Journal of Sociology. July 1954, LX. P.36-45.

End of work -

This topic belongs to the section:

Consumer behavior

Before studying consumer behavior, it is necessary to consider the stages of development of the science of Marketing and the history of the emergence of applied science .. From the data in the table, we conclude that there are three stages of the formation of the science of marketing. Concept ..

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Now almost no one doubts the special economic role of the consumer, who is one of the main actors in the market mechanism. "The basic idea of ​​economics, according to the American economist T. Skitowski, is that the consumer knows what he needs and that the economic system works best when it satisfies the consumer's desires, which are manifested in his behavior in the market." It is the decisions of individual consumers to purchase a particular product that ultimately form market demand, predetermine, in conjunction with the market supply, the level equilibrium prices and the volume of real sales.

Entering the market, the consumer sets himself the goal of maximum satisfaction of his needs, obtaining the highest level of utility from the consumption of any good. Just like the manufacturer, the consumer is not completely free in his choice. He is forced to take into account not only his personal preferences, but also the income at his disposal, market prices for goods and services of interest to him, and other factors of market conditions.

This topic will consider the issues of the economic behavior of the consumer, analyze the determinants of his choice (including under conditions of uncertainty), and also touch upon certain problems associated with a more in-depth study of the category of market demand.

Principles of rational consumer behavior

In his analysis, the consumer proceeds from the assumption of the rationality of his behavior. Rational behavior an individual or a group of people is manifested in their desire to achieve the maximum utility from the consumption of a given product, taking into account the constraints of the budget.

Consumer behavior- This is the process of shaping consumer demand for a variety and taking into account their income and personal preferences.

Utility any good, we will further define as its ability to satisfy any needs of a person or society.

For the first time the term "utility" was introduced into scientific circulation by I. Bentham (1748-1832), an English philosopher and sociologist, who believed that the principle of utility maximization is the basic principle of human behavior. The rational consumer manages his spending on the purchase of goods and services in such a way as to obtain maximum "satisfaction", or maximum utility.

The utility in goods and services is associated with the qualities and characteristics that make it possible to satisfy certain desires of people. These qualities can include health, aesthetic beauty or design, ease of use, durability, luxury, comfort, etc. The presence of both objective and subjective qualities in utility makes it a relative concept, not an absolute one.

The usefulness of a product may vary depending on time and place. So the usefulness of soft drinks is different in summer and winter, in the north and in the south.

Nevertheless, despite the relative nature of utility, economists around the world have sought to compare the utility of various goods and services, which has led to the emergence of two theories of utility:

The quantitative approach and the so-called. Within the framework of this theory, a hypothesis is put forward about the possibility of quantitative commensuration of the utility of various goods and the existence of a utility function.

The ordinal approach and the so-called. Within the framework of this theory, it is assumed that it is only possible to rank the utility of a person - from best to worst, and to reject the quantitative commensuration of the utility of goods. The analysis is based on a set of a certain number of initial hypotheses (axioms), on the basis of which indifference curves are constructed and the consumer's optimum is considered.

Test on the topic "Inflation" in preparation for the Unified State Exam in Social Studies.

1. The task of revealing the meaning of concepts and their use.

What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "inflation"?

Drawing on knowledge of a social science course, make two sentences: one sentence containing information about the types of inflation depending on the rate, and one sentence revealing any effect of inflation.

Answer:

The meaning of the concept: inflation is the process of depreciation of money and a decrease in their purchasing power, manifested in an increase in the general level of prices;

1. Depending on the rate of inflation, one can conditionally distinguish between moderate (creeping), galloping, high and hyperinflation inflation;

2.In terms of inflation, it slows down the economic growth, since the purchase of new, more advanced technology becomes unavailable for firms.

2. The task for the concretization of theoretical positions by examples.

Inflation complicates the activities of producers and consumers in market economy... Illustrate with three examples of rational consumer behavior in the face of significant inflation.

1) borrowing money, since in conditions of inflation the debtor always wins, he will have to return "cheaper money" in comparison with what he borrowed;

2) investment of savings in works of art, something that is less prone to depreciation;

3) purchase of a plot of land, real estate;

4) investing money in your own recreation, health, etc.

3. Assignment for solving cognitive problems.

The monitoring of the socio-economic development of the country of S. recorded the rate of inflation and its causes. As one of the reasons, the shortage of products is indicated, formed due to a sharp reduction in imports and an increase in exports of some goods. What are other possible causes of inflation? (List any three of them.)

1) imbalance of government expenditures and revenues;

2) the state budget deficit;

3) changes in the structure of the market in the XX century (the market has become oligopolistic, monopolies have a certain degree of power over the price, they are interested in the price race);

4) the rise in prices requires even more banknotes for circulation, and each new portion of them leads to a new rise in prices;

5) an increase in government spending on financing national economic and social programs (defense system, education, ecology, assistance to the unemployed, maintenance of the state apparatus), etc.

4. Assignment for drawing up a complex plan for a given topic.

Make a complex plan for a detailed answer on the topic “Inflation and its danger to the economy.

1) Inflation is the process of depreciation of money.

2) The main sources of inflation:

A) increasing the nominal wages not conditioned by the growth of labor productivity;

B) an increase in prices for raw materials and energy resources;

C) an increase in taxes on the manufacturer.

3) Inflation of demand and inflation of supply.

4) The main types of inflation:

A) by the nature of the course (open and hidden);

B) depending on the growth rate (moderate, galloping, hyperinflation).

5) Consequences of inflation for the economy:

A) decline in employment, disruption of the entire system of economic regulation;

B) depreciation of the entire accumulation fund and loans;

C) depreciation of real incomes of the population, reduction of current consumption;

D) decrease in investment;

E) loss of value by money.

6) Measures to overcome inflation:

A) control over the emission of money, withdrawal of excess money;

B) reduction of budgetary expenditures;

C) development of production, overcoming the recession in the economy.

7. Specificity of anti-inflationary measures in the Russian Federation.

5. Assignment for writing an essay.

“Inflation gives everyone the opportunity to feel like a millionaire” (A. Rogov).

Inflation is a characteristic feature of the economic history of all countries of the world. It fundamentally transforms the rules of economic exchange and has a powerful effect on consumer behavior.
The rise in prices is one of the main factors of concern for Russians. To the question: "What problems of our society worry you the most and do you consider them the most acute?" in January 1997, 55.1%, and in January 1998, 58% of the respondents noted an increase in prices. These are indications of sentiment for a fairly stable period. The alarm is caused not by the rise in prices per se, but by their rise against the background of a lack of wage growth or slow rates of its growth.
During periods of rapid price growth in 1992-1993, since August 1998, this factor turns into the main headache for consumers, into a factor without which no economic decision is made.
The first phase of consumer reaction. "Experience shows that the population in general very slowly understands the situation and finds a way out of it. At first, the change in habits is even done in the opposite direction and facilitates the position of the government. The population is so accustomed to the idea that money is the final measure of value, that in the initial period the rise in prices it considers it transitory and therefore saves money and refrains from spending in the belief that it has become the owner of a greater real value in monetary form than before. " This is how the classic of English economic theory J. Keynes (Keynes 1993) described the reaction to inflation in this way in 1923.
The second phase of consumer reaction. “But sooner or later the second phase comes. The population becomes convinced that the owners of the paper have a special tax and cover government expenses, and they begin to change their habits and try to minimize their paper cash” (Keynes 1993).
This is achieved in different ways:
(1) money is placed in various things, such as jewelry or household items;
(2) the population can reduce the amount allocated for household expenses and the average time during which these amounts are spent.
For example, Keynes gives an example from the history of early Soviet Russia during the period of inflation: a merchant, having sold a pound of cheese, rushed with his rubles to the market to immediately replenish his stock, exchanging money for cheese before it rose in price again. There was even a joke about a gentleman who, when ordering beer in a cafe, immediately ordered another glass, preferring to drink settled beer, but to avoid the risk of price increases. In Vienna during the same period, exchange offices were created at every step, where it was possible to change the local currency a few minutes after receiving it into Swiss francs (Keynes 1993). After 1992, Moscow and other large cities also began to shock the abundance of exchange offices, giving foreigners the impression that the whole country was about to go abroad.
In an effort to quickly get rid of money that is dwindling before our eyes, part of the population finds itself in a situation where there is regularly an acute shortage of cash to meet even the most urgent needs. Here you have to borrow, but who gives loans during inflation, without sacrificing their own interests?
Another consequence of the drive to get rid of cash is that the goods usually acquired as a result of more or less long-term savings become unavailable. All the money is spent on current consumption, on little things, sometimes even completely unnecessary, that can be bought immediately after receiving a salary.
The same interest in "getting rid of money" also leads to the desire to buy many consumer goods in large batches, which makes it possible to get away from inflation and not face the problem of hunger. Most often this is the purchase of food for future use.
In general, the behavior of people during inflation resembles their behavior during the period of domination of the administrative system with its characteristic deficit: both here and there there is a desire to turn their money of little value into a commodity. However, there is also a significant difference: inflation in the market economy significantly restricts demand at a constantly growing price level, preventing a total deficit.
The natural consequence of inflation is the flight from inflation-affected money by converting it into a stable foreign currency. As a result, foreign currency acquires the functions of a means of payment in foreign territory, functions of a store of value, etc. In the context of inflation, the demand for gold and other jewelry, which is used as a means of accumulation and flight from inflation, increases sharply.

Obviously, the main limitation for any consumer is the amount of his income. Since the needs are diverse and unlimited, and the income (that is, the amount of money available to the consumer) is limited, the buyer is forced to constantly make a choice from the huge number of goods offered to him in the market. It is natural to assume that in making this choice, the consumer seeks to acquire the best set of goods available for a given limited income.

There is no objective criterion for determining which set of products is the best for a given consumer. And only because the consumer chooses the "best set" of goods from his individual (ie, subjective) point of view (remember the surprisingly accurate aphorism of K. Prutkov: "everyone thinks the best what he wants").

Of course, the subjective approach is not perfect: a person is a complex creature and does not always behave rationally in the indicated sense. Of course, the idea of ​​the consumer's rationality simplifies the mechanism of his economic behavior, and nevertheless, most consumers really strive to get maximum satisfaction from their limited income.

It should be especially emphasized that to behave rationally in the market does not mean necessarily to be tight-fisted and petty-calculating. One should not think that a person who has spent his fortune on "a million scarlet roses" for his beloved is an irrational consumer, and another who has put money in commercial Bank at high interest rates, on the contrary, a rational consumer. Consumer behavior theory recognizes rational consumer and both, if only they really chose the best (from their subjective point of view) variant of consumer behavior. This means that each consumer has a kind of individual scale of preferences and, realizing it with a limited income, seeks to achieve the maximum possible degree of satisfaction.

Rational consumer behavior is to maximize utility with limited income.

Ticket

There are two main approaches to determining utility:

1) quantitative (cardinal). This is the traditional version of consumer choice theory;

2) ordinal (ordinal).

The utility that a consumer derives from an additional unit of good is called marginal utility (MU). In turn, the sum of the utilities of the individual parts of the good gives the total utility (TU). Then the marginal utility is the increase in total utility with an increase in the volume of consumption of the good by one unit.

General utility of the good

The total utility curve starts from the origin, since the need begins to be satisfied after a certain amount of consumption. This curve is positively inclined, since with the increase in the amount of the good, the total utility increases.

Using the cardinalist (quantitative) theory of utility, it is possible to characterize not only general utility, but also marginal utility, as an additional increase in a given level of well-being obtained by consuming an additional amount of a given type of good and constant quantities of consumed goods of all other types.

Marginal utility

Most goods have the property of diminishing marginal utility, according to which the greater the consumption of a certain good, the smaller the increment in utility obtained from a unit increment in the consumption of this good. This explains why the demand curve for these goods has a negative slope. Figure 8 shows that for a hungry person, the usefulness of the first slice of bread they eat is high (QA), but as their appetite is saturated, each subsequent slice of bread brings less and less satisfaction: the fifth loaf of bread will deliver only QB of usefulness.

Ticket

ORDINALISTIC (ORDERAL) USEFULNESS - subjective utility, or satisfaction that the consumer receives from the goods consumed by him, measured on an ordinal scale.

Ordinal (ordinal) utility theory is an alternative to cardinal (quantitative) utility theory.

Marginal utility cannot be measured; the consumer does not measure the utility of individual goods, but the utility of a set of goods. Only the order of preference for sets of goods lends itself to measurability. The criterion of the ordinal (ordinal) theory of utility involves the ordering by the consumer of his preferences regarding goods. The consumer systematizes the choice of a set of goods according to the level of satisfaction. For example, the 1st set of goods gives him the greatest satisfaction, the 2nd set - less satisfaction, the 3rd set - even less satisfaction, etc. Therefore, such a systematization gives an idea of ​​the preferences of consumers in relation to a set of goods. However, it does not provide an idea of ​​the differences in satisfaction with these sets of goods. In other words, from a practical point of view, the consumer can tell which set he prefers over the other, but cannot determine how much one set is better than the other.

Ordinal (ordinal) utility theory is based on several axioms. Note that there is no consensus among economists regarding the number and name of the axioms. Some authors name four axioms, others - three axioms. Here we highlight the following axioms.

1. Axiom of complete (perfect) ordering of consumer preferences. A consumer making a purchase can always either name which of the two sets of goods is better than the other, or recognize them as equal. So, for sets A and B, or A> - B, or B> - A, or A ~ B, where the sign "> -" expresses the attitude of preference, and the sign "~" - the relation of equivalence or indifference.

2. The axiom of the transitivity of consumer preferences means that in order to make a certain decision and implement it, the consumer must consistently transfer preferences from some goods and their sets to others. So, if A> - B, and B> - C, then always A> - C, and if A ~ B and B ~ C, then always A ~ C. From the presented ranking it follows that A gives more satisfaction than B , and B - more than C. Therefore, A gives more satisfaction than C. Transitivity also implies that if the consumer does not distinguish between alternatives A and B and between B and C, then he should not always distinguish between A and V.

3. The axiom of unsaturation of needs says that consumers always prefer more of any good to less. Anti-benefits that have negative utility do not fit this axiom, since they lower the level of well-being of a given consumer. Thus, air pollution and noise reduce the level of consumer utility.

36 ticket The indifference curve depicts alternative sets of goods that deliver the same level of utility (Figure 8.1)

Indifference curves have the following properties: 1. The indifference curve located to the right and above the other curve is preferred by the consumer. 2. Indifference curves always have a negative slope because rational consumers will prefer more of any set to less. Indifference curves are concave due to decreasing marginal rates of substitution. 4. Indifference curves never intersect and usually show decreasing marginal rates of substitution of one good for another. 5. Sets of goods on curves more distant from the origin are preferable to sets of goods located on curves less distant from the coordinates. To describe a person's preferences for all sets of food and clothing, a family of indifference curves can be drawn, which is called an indifference curve map. Indifference Curve Map - The Way graphic image utility functions for some specific consumer (Fig. 8.2). In fig. 8.2 shows four indifference curves, forming a family - a map of indifference curves. Sets on indifference curves farther from the origin are more useful to the consumer and therefore preferable to sets on less distant curves. In fig. 8.2 U4> U3> U2> U1.

Rice. 8.2. Indifference Curve Map

The indifference curve map gives an idea of ​​the tastes of a particular consumer, since it illustrates the rate of substitution of two goods at any level of consumption of these goods. When we talk about knowing the tastes of consumers, we mean the whole map of indifference curves, and not the current ratio of units of two goods. In the indifference curve map, each curve combines points with the same utility.

The basic working concept of ordinal (ordinal) utility theory is the marginal rate of substitution MRS.

The marginal rate of substitution (MRS) shows how many units of one good the consumer must give up in order to acquire an additional unit of another good. In other words, it is the ratio of the marginal utility of two goods.

 

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