The benefits are material values \u200b\u200bto receive. Material benefit: definition, examples. The division of labor provides
It often happens that in order to obtain economic benefits, the joint action of several material goods is required, and if one of them is lacking, then the goal cannot be achieved at all, or is only not fully achieved. These material goods, mutually complementary to each other, we call, following Menger's example, complementary material goods. So, for example, paper, pen and ink, needle and thread, cart and horse, bow and arrow, two boots belonging to the same pair, two pair of gloves, etc., are complementary material goods. Especially often, one can say constantly, the relationship of complementarity is found in the field of productive material goods.
It is quite natural that the close relationship between complementary material goods, which is necessary for them to bring their inherent benefits, is expressed in the formation of their value. Here it gives rise to a whole kind of peculiarities, which, however, all fit into the framework of the general law of marginal benefit. In considering these features, we must keep in mind the difference between the value inherent in the whole group and the value of each individual thing that is part of the group.
The total value of a whole group of material goods is determined in most cases by the amount of marginal benefit that all these material goods can bring when acting together. If, for example, three material goods A, B and C constitute a complementary group and if the smallest, economically advantageous benefit that can be obtained from the joint, combined use of these three material goods is expressed by the number 100, then the value of all three material goods A , B and C together will be equal to 100 too.
This is the general rule. The only exceptions to this are cases when - according to the general rules already known to us - the value of a thing is generally determined not by the immediate marginal benefit of the kind of material goods to which it belongs, but by the marginal benefit of another kind of material goods used to replace this thing. ... In our special example, this will happen when each individual member of the complementary group can be replaced by a new copy through the purchase, production or diversion of material goods from other isolated branches of use and when, at the same time, the resulting "substitutional benefit" for all members of the group taken together, turns out to be less than the marginal benefit that they give when combined. If, for example, the marginal benefit obtained from combined use is equal to 100, and the "substitutional value" of the three members of the group n separately is only 20, 30, and 40, which means only 90, then from all three material goods taken together, it will not depend on the receipt of the combined marginal benefit of 100, but the receipt of only a lesser benefit at 90. However, since in such cases the influence of complementarity proper on the formation of value is not noticed and the formation of value is carried out according to the general rules that we already know, then study here We do not need a special consideration of these cases, and therefore in the subsequent presentation I intend to analyze only the general normal case when the marginal benefit obtained from the combined use of complementary material goods is at the same time the actual marginal benefit that determines the value of material goods.
The marginal benefit obtained from the combined use of complementary material goods is determined primarily, as we said above, the total, total value of the entire group. Between the individual members of the group, this common group value is distributed in a completely different way, depending on the casuistic characteristics of the given case.
Firstly, if each of the members of the complementary group can serve to satisfy a human need only when shared with other members of this group, and if at the same time there is no way to replace the lost member with a new copy, then each member of the the composition of the group, a thing taken separately is the bearer of the entire aggregate value of the whole group, while the rest of the things, without the first, have no value. Suppose I have a pair of gloves with a total value of one guilder; if I lose one glove, I lose all the usefulness that a pair of gloves brings, and therefore all the value that a whole pair has - the second glove I have left will no longer be of any value. It goes without saying that each of the two gloves can play both roles; Which one of them will in this case be the bearer of the entire value of the whole pair and which will be a thing that is worthless and worth nothing - this entirely depends on the special conditions of the given case. This kind of cases in practical life are relatively rare.
It happens much more often, secondly, that individual members of the complementary group, even outside the sphere of their combined use, retain the ability to bring a certain, albeit insignificant, benefit. In such cases, the value of an individual thing belonging to the complementary group no longer fluctuates between "nothing" and "everything", but only between the amount of marginal benefit that this thing can bring in isolated use, at least, and the amount of combined marginal benefit minus from it the isolated marginal benefit of the remaining members, as a maximum. Suppose, for example, that three material goods A, B, and C, when combined, can bring the marginal benefit expressed by the number 100, and that while thing A, taken separately, can provide marginal benefit 10, B - 20, and C - 30. In this case, the value of thing A will be as follows: if it is used separately from other things, then only its isolated marginal benefit 10 can be obtained from it, and so will its value. If the whole group is taken as a whole and the thing A is supposed to be sold, donated, etc., then it turns out that with thing A you can get a total benefit of 100, without thing A - only a lesser isolated benefit of things B and C, expressed in the numbers 20 and 30, therefore, only 50, and, therefore, the difference in benefit of 50 depends on the possession of the thing A or on the loss of it. Therefore, as the last, decisive member of the group, thing A has a value of 100 - (20 + 30), i.e. e. 50; as an isolated thing - only the value 10 [it goes without saying that here, again, it depends on the special conditions of the given case, which of the members of the group is evaluated as a complementary member of the group, and which are evaluated only as isolated things. If, for example, the owner of a complete group of complementary material goods wants to buy a thing A, he will evaluate it as part of the whole group, and things B and C, which remain isolated, as isolated things, i.e. below. If, on the contrary, they buy thing C from him, then he will evaluate it as part of a whole group at 100 - (10 + 20), that is, at 70, and things A and B as isolated - only at 10 and 20] ... We see, therefore, that in the second case, the fluctuations in the distribution of the total value of the group among its individual members are not as sharp as in the first case.
But it happens even more often, thirdly, that individual members of the group can not only be used as auxiliary materials for other purposes, but can at the same time be replaced by other specimens of the same kind. For example, building a house requires a piece of land, bricks, logs, and labor. If several carts of bricks intended for the construction of a house disappear, or if several people from the workers hired for this purpose leave, then under normal conditions this circumstance will not at all interfere with the receipt of combined benefits, that is, it will not prevent the construction of a house, but only the lost construction materials and departed workers will be replaced with new ones. Hence the following consequences for the formation of the value of complementary material goods arise:
1) members of a complementary group, capable of being replaced by other specimens, can never - even in those cases when they are needed precisely as part of a whole group - can acquire values \u200b\u200bthat exceed their "substitutional value", that is, the value that is bought at the cost of refusing to receive benefits in those sectors of the use of material goods, from where the funds are taken to replenish the shortfall;
2) due to this, the framework within which the value of an individual thing can be established, evaluated either as a member of a whole complementary group, or as an isolated material benefit, is narrowed, and, moreover, they are narrowed the more, the more the given thing acquires the character of common use, having a wide distribution in the market of goods. Indeed, the greater the number of available copies and the wider the possibility of their use, the smaller the difference will be between the importance of the industry of use from which the items needed for replacement are taken (maximum value), and the importance of the industry closest to it, in which it is possible would find use for a redundant isolated instance (minimum value). Suppose, for example, that of the material goods A belonging to the genus A, in addition to the thing A1, which is part of the complementary group, there are only two other copies of A2 and A3 and that the importance of existing industries (except for use in the complementary group) is expressed by the numbers 50, 20, 10, etc. In this case, material goods A2 and A3 will satisfy only those areas of needs, the importance of which is expressed by the numbers 50 and 20, and therefore, if one of these two copies goes to replace the thing A1, then the benefit will be lost , expressed by the number 20. If, on the contrary, after the destruction of the value of the complementary group of the thing A1 itself it is necessary to give only some isolated use as an auxiliary means, then only the third branch of use will remain open for it, the importance of which is expressed by the number 10. Therefore, in in this case, the value of item A1 will still fluctuate between 10 (isolated use) and 20 (the last, decisive member of the group by virtue of the substitution). If, instead of three, there were a thousand branches of use, then the difference between the thousandth branch, from which, if necessary, it would be necessary to take the copy needed for replacement, and the thousand and first, in which one would have to look for a use for a copy made redundant due to the disintegration of the complementary group, would be reduced almost to zero, of course.
3) As a consequence, in the presence of the conditions that we have just talked about, the value of the replaceable members of the complementary group, regardless of the specific complementary use, is established at a certain height at which it remains for them and when the total value of the group is distributed among individual members. This distribution is done in such a way that from the total value of the whole group - the value determined by the marginal benefit obtained by combined use - the unchanging value of the members who can be replaced is distinguished first of all, and the remainder, fluctuating according to the magnitude of the marginal benefit, falls as their isolated value. to the share of those members who cannot be replaced. Suppose that in our example, which we have used so many times, members A and B have the same "substitutional value", expressed as 10 (or 20); in this case, the non-replaceable thing C will have an isolated value of 70 when the combined marginal benefit is 100, or an isolated value of 90 when the marginal benefit reaches 120 [if C could also be replaced at a lower "substitutional value" , then we would get the case discussed above and the marginal benefit of the combined use in general could not serve as a basis for determining the value of the complementary group].
Since of all the casuistic cases we have considered, the latter is most often encountered in practice, then the formation of the value of complementary material goods is carried out predominantly according to the last formula. The most important application finds itself this formula, especially in the distribution of production incomes between the various productive forces, thanks to the combined action of which they are obtained. Indeed, almost every product is the result of the combined action of a whole group of complementary material goods: land, labor, constant and circulating capital. The vast majority of complementary material goods as commercially available goods can be substituted in any way; such are, for example, the work of hired workers, raw materials, fuel, tools, etc. Only a minority of them do not lend themselves, or at least are not easy to replace; such are, for example, a land plot cultivated by a peasant, a mine, railway, a factory building with all its furnishings, the activities of the entrepreneur himself with its purely individual qualities, etc. Thus, we find here exactly the very casuistic conditions in the presence of which the above (under number 3) formula for the distribution of value between individual members should gain force complementary group; and indeed it is applied in practice with the greatest precision. Indeed, in practical life, the "cost of production" is deducted from the total amount of income. If you take a closer look, it turns out that in reality this is not the entire mass of costs, since the plot of land used for production or the activities of an entrepreneur as things of value also belong to the number of "production costs" - no, these are only expenses for productive means of a given substitutional value that can be replaced: for hired labor, for raw materials, for the wear of tools, etc. The balance resulting from these expenses is attributed as "net income" to the group members who cannot be replaced: the peasant attributes it to the account his land, a mining owner - at the expense of his mining, a manufacturer - at the expense of his factory, a merchant - at the expense of his entrepreneurial activity.
When the income of the complementary group rises, it never occurs to anyone to attribute the increase in income to the members who are able to replace; on the contrary, they say that it was "the land plot (or mine) that gave more income". But in the same way, when the total profitability decreases, it does not occur to anyone to put "expenses" into account in a reduced amount - no, the shortfall is explained by the fact that the land plot (or mine, etc.) less income... And this reasoning is quite logical and correct: only constant "substitutional value" really depends on material goods that can be replaced at any time, and the rest of the total amount of benefits obtained from combined use depends on those that cannot be replaced.
The path along which we have followed in our analysis so far would also lead us to the solution of a problem that has occupied our science so much and for a long time, and which is usually declared by economists, perhaps too hastily, as insoluble, namely the following problem : to determine the size of participation, which takes in the creation of a common product, each of several jointly acting factors [cf. Bernhardi. Versuch einer Kritik der Grunde fur grosses und kleines Grundeigentum. Petersburg, 1849, S. 198; Mithoff in Schonberg "s" Handbuch der politischen Okonomie. Ed. 2. S. 692, and the authors indicated there. (Cf. also Wieser. Ursprung und Hauptgesetze des wirtschaftlichen Werts. S. 170)]. True, the physical share of participation is impossible , of course, expressed in numbers, but the question of whether we can determine the share of value, it seems to me, cannot be solved in an absolutely negative sense. However, this is not the place to go into a discussion of this difficult issue.
Karl Menger (1840–1921), professor of political economy at the University of Vienna, was the first of the representatives of the Austrian school to develop this position. In 1871 Menger published the book "Fundamentals of Political Economy", the purpose of the research is human needs, which are considered as unfulfilled desires or unpleasant sensations caused by a violation of the physiological balance of a person. He defended the following point of view: price analysis should be reduced to the analysis of individual estimates.
Menger introduced the concept economic and non-economic good... Economic benefits are understood as benefits for which there is a shortage of supply, under non-economic benefits, for which there is equality between demand and supply. Trying to resolve A. Smith's paradox about water and diamond (to explain why diamond is so expensive and water is cheap, without resorting to the labor theory of value), Menger formulated principle of diminishing utility:the value (value) of any good is determined by the least utility possessed by the last unit of stock. At the same time, when determining the value of material goods, it is not the scale of types of needs that should be taken as a basis, but the scale of the specific needs of a particular person. As the supply increases, the value of the additional unit decreases.
To illustrate this position, it is appropriate to give a table, which is called the "Menger's table" (Table 4), where the vertical rows marked with Roman numerals denote different kinds needs and their importance in descending order: I - the most important type of needs, for example, for food; V - kind of needs of medium importance, for example, the need for alcoholic beverages; X is the least important type of needs. Arabic numerals within each vertical row illustrate a decrease in the need for a given need as it is saturated in descending order from 10 to 1. It can be seen that a specific need of a more important type may be lower than individual specific needs of a less important type. For example, the eighth unit of the first type of needs will be of less value (or less significance) for the well-being of the subject than the first unit of the seventh type of needs. Representatives of the Austrian school associated the decrease in the value of goods as their number increased with deeply rooted property of human naturewhen one and the same kind of sensations, repeating incessantly, begin to give us less and less pleasure, and finally this pleasure turns even into its opposite - into unpleasantness and disgust. Thus, in the theory of value of the Austrian school, utility can also represent a negative value.
Table 4
| I | II | III | IV | V | VI | Vii | VIII | IX | X |
Menger's table reflects both Gossen's laws: a decrease in numbers by columns means a decrease in marginal utility (first law), and a unit of good, when each of the actually satisfied needs (I and II) is satisfied, has the same marginal utility.
This is the formulation of the law of diminishing marginal utility. But how does this position relate to the concept of pricing? In the most direct way. The value (price) of a thing is measured by the value of the marginal utility of the given thing, the utility of the last unit of the stock of goods that satisfies the least important need. It is appropriate to give an example about Robinson, who has five bags of grain in stock, of which the first is needed in order not to starve to death, the second is to maintain health, the third is to feed poultry, the fourth is to prepare alcoholic beverages, and the fifth is needed for the content of the parrot. What determines the value of one (any) bag of grain? According to the views of representatives of the Austrian school, the usefulness of the last bag that satisfies the least urgent need. This marginal unit (utility) determines the actual value of the previous units. Marginal utility, in turn, depends on the amount of goods and the intensity of consumption of the individual. Thus, the value depends on the degree of utility and the degree of rarity. The first determines the highest point to which marginal utility can rise in the extreme; the second is to what point the marginal utility actually rises in a particular case. In other words, the height of marginal utility is determined by two factors: subjective (needs) and objective (quantity of goods), which, within the framework of the Austrian school's reasoning, remains the same data once and for all.
The doctrine of exchange. Differences in the relative subjective value of the same goods for different people is, according to Menger, the reason for the exchange. The exchange of good X for good Y will occur only when individual A evaluates X higher than Y, and individual B - vice versa. The exchange will continue until the relative values \u200b\u200bof the goods for both individuals are equal. Subjective values \u200b\u200bdetermine the exchange ratio of goods.
However, all reasoning about subjective value cannot explain the mechanism market pricingwhere, despite all the variety of subjective assessments, there is a single price for the product.
Consider Menger's theory of pricing, he is presented in table. 5, where the rows determine the value of the (newly arrived) additional unit of the good, and the columns - the value of the unit of the good (first, second, etc.) for each consumer (B1, B2,… B8).
Table 5
| I | II | III | IV | V | VI | Vii | VIII | |
| IN 1 | ||||||||
| IN 2 | ||||||||
| IN 3 | ||||||||
| AT 4 | ||||||||
| AT 5 | ||||||||
| AT 6 | ||||||||
| AT 7 | ||||||||
| AT 8 |
The landowner В1 does not have a horse, but there is plenty of grain, so for him the value of the first horse is 80 measures of bread, the landowner B2 estimates the value of the first horse at 70 measures of bread.
E. Böhm-Bawerk (1851 - 1919) made an attempt to resolve this contradiction, introducing the concept objective valueby which he understands exchange proportions (prices)which are formed in the course of competition in the market.
The pricing process is done when following conditions: the volume of supply on the market is fixed; the market price is established precisely in this act of competition, and does not depend on previously existing prices; the price is set in accordance with the ratio of the maximum buyers 'prices and the minimum sellers' prices; the minimum buyer prices and maximum seller prices are derived from the subjective utility ratio; deals should be beneficial to both buyers and sellers. Therefore, none of them will buy (or sell) a horse at a price equal to his own estimate; equilibrium in the market is achieved when demand is equal to supply (the number of buyers is equal to the number of sellers).
How, under these conditions, will the price of a horse be established? The Boehm-Bawerk pricing process is easiest to explain using his already textbook example of the equestrian market. So, buyers and sellers collide on the market, who have subjective assessments as to how useful the horse is for him (Table 6).
Table 6
| Buyers | Sellers | Subjective assessment, florins | |
| 1 \u003d th | 1 \u003d th | ||
| 2 \u003d th | 2 \u003d th | ||
| 3 \u003d th | 3 \u003d th | ||
| 4 \u003d th | 4 \u003d th | ||
| 5 \u003d th | 5 \u003d th | ||
| 6 \u003d th | 6 \u003d th | ||
| 7 \u003d th | 7 \u003d th | ||
| 8 \u003d th | 8 \u003d th | ||
| 9 \u003d th | |||
| 10 \u003d th |
Suppose that the bidding begins with the buyers declaring their price of 130 florins. This price is beneficial to all buyers. But sellers are clearly not satisfied with it - only the first two are ready to sell horses at a given price. There is an imbalance between supply and demand, so rivalry flares up between buyers in price increases, which will inevitably lead to the elimination of individual buyers from the market and the return of sellers.
As a result of this process, (let's say) the price settled at just over 200 florins, leaving six buyers and five sellers in the market. The circle has narrowed, but demand is still greater than supply. The price rises further and at 210 florins the sixth buyer will leave the market.
Demand equals supply. But sellers, in their natural tendency to get more profit, increase the price by holding the horses. The price rises, but as soon as it surpasses 215 florins, a sixth seller appears in the market and the balance is disturbed again.
So the price is known. She established ranging from 210 to 215 florins inclusive. At this price, the demand for horses and their supply are balanced. Consequently, according to Böhm-Bawerk, the market price will fluctuate within the maximum and minimum prices as a result of the collision in the markets of subjective assessments of sellers and buyers. In this case, the level of the market price cannot be higher than the estimate of the first excluded seller (upper price limit) and lower than the estimate of the first excluded buyer (lower price limit), since otherwise the achieved equilibrium is violated.
This pricing scheme ignores: the role of labor; production costs, the consumer becomes the only figure in the economic system. The theory of marginal utility, proposed by representatives of the Austrian school, has the following drawbacks: the absolute inelasticity of the proposal. Since the supply is a fixed value, the value of a particular good (good) depends solely on demand, which changes depending on the marginal utility of this good. Consequently, the principle of marginal utility, developed by representatives of the Austrian school, is applicable only to the analysis of individual consumption in kind, since the seller, the owner of the product and its manufacturer, is guided in determining the price by the principle of marginal utility, selling on the market only surplus benefits:the mechanism for equalizing marginal utility in the exchange process occurs under the assumption of the available price and given consumer income. This means that the subjective assessments themselves are determined by the price level and the amount of income, and outside the price system there is no quantification of utility.
According to the ideas of the Austrian school, the only factor that determines the proportions of exchange of goods and, accordingly, the price, is their marginal utility. Consequently, productive (capital) goods have no value, since they do not directly satisfy human needs, that is, they do not have immediate utility. In a real economy, productive goods have value, and their prices form production costs. How is the problem of production costs solved within the framework of the ideas of the Austrian school?
In economic science, the theory of production costs, like the theory of value, exists in two versions: the theory of objective costs; theory of subjective costs.
Recognition of the objective nature of costs is characteristic of the classical school, where the prices of factors of production were derived from natural rates of remuneration, and their levels were determined by separate theories. Land rent was defined as a differential surplus in excess of the marginal cost of cultivating the land, wage - the long-term cost of the worker's livelihood, and the profit was the residual value. Within the framework of the classical school, the reality of production costs was not questioned. Representatives of the Austrian school declared that real costs were nothing more than an ancient delusion, and one of the representatives of the Austrian school, F. Wieser (1851-1926), developed a subjective theory of costs. The initial premises of this theory are two provisions.
First position states that productive goods are future, potential goods, their value is derivative and depends on the value of the final product that brings immediate satisfaction. Consequently, it is not production costs that give value to products, but, on the contrary, production costs acquire value from their products. Consumer goods themselves give value to those productive resources or factors that are involved in their production.
Second position boils down to the assertion that supply is the reverse side of demand - the demand of those who have the product. With enough low prices manufacturers themselves will present demand for their products.
In our example of the equestrian market, if the market price is lower than the estimate of the horse's usefulness by a particular seller, he will take it out of the market, since its usefulness in his farm is higher. Cost is nothing more than a necessary payment for the diversion of resources from other use cases, like the prices offered for the services of factors used to produce it by other competing producers.
In this theory, costs are nothing more than a form in which an individual is informed about the “desirability” of the possession of a thing by some other person. But what is the mechanism for forming the value of productive goods? Having singled out the least marginal utility from the sum of consumer goods that are created by a certain production good, Wieser called it the marginal product. Using this conceptWieser formulated the law: The marginal utility of a marginal product determines the price of the productive good that went into its production, and the corresponding part of the production costs, which determine the marginal utility of other, unsaturated consumer products produced from the specified good (the so-called Wieser's law).
4.3. Anglo–american School of Economics
In the theory of production costs of the Austrian school, within the framework of the concept of opportunity costs, the value of productive goods was equated to the value of the goods sacrificed to them, bringing immediate satisfaction. However, the question remained as to what part of their value should be attributed to one or another factor of production.
Let us recall that the representatives of the classical school believed that all factors of production (labor, capital, land) participate equally in the process of creating value and receive their share of the created product.
The problem was solved by the American economist JB Clark (1847-1938) in the work "Distribution of Wealth" (1899). He formulated the law of "diminishing marginal productivity". The law says that in conditions when at least one factor of production remains unchanged, an additional increment of other factors gives less and less growth in production. In other words, the marginal product of the variable factor is constantly decreasing.
Based on the law of diminishing marginal productivity, Clark concludes that, given the same capital, each additional worker produces less output than the previously adopted one. The labor productivity of the last worker is called the marginal labor productivity. According to Clarke, only the product that is created by the marginal worker can be considered a product of labor, while the rest of the product, that is, the difference between the "product of industry" and the "product of labor", is a product of capital.
Fundamental to Clark's theory is the assertion that the marginal product in monetary form determines the fair, natural level of income paid to each factor of production. The natural, fair level of wages of workers in our example will coincide with the price of the marginal product produced by the last worker, that is, with the price of eight units of output. If we accept Clarke's assumption that wages are determined by the marginal productivity of labor (the marginal productivity of the last worker), then it is easy to explain the extremely low wages in developing countries, because in conditions of an excess supply of labor in relation to the total capital of society, the marginal product of the last unit of social labor will tend to to a minimum. However, Clark extends the statement about the reward of a factor in accordance with the magnitude of its marginal product to other factors of production. In particular, in his theory the value of interest as a product of capital is determined by the unit of capital that gives the smallest increase in production. All other things being equal, diminishing marginal productivity, the greater the value of the total capital of a society, the lower the interest rate. According to Clarke, if there are no barriers to competition, wages, interest and rent will be the prices of factors of production that coincide in magnitude with their marginal product or with their marginal productivity.
Note that in Clark's model of pricing of factors of production, for the first time after the classics of political economy, the process of production and distribution has a single basis - the marginal product of factors.
Tests with answers personnel management.
1 Test. What management action is not related to the functions of personnel management?
a) planning;
b) forecasting;
c) motivation;
d) drawing up reports;
e) organization.
2. The management staff includes:
a) auxiliary workers;
b) seasonal workers;
c) junior service personnel;
d) managers, specialists;
e) main workers.
Test 3. Japanese personnel management does not apply:
a) life-long employment;
b) principles of seniority in payment and appointment;
c) collective responsibility;
d) informal control;
e) advancement in the career hierarchy depends on professionalism and successfully completed tasks, and not on the age of the worker or work experience.
4. With which disciplines is the system of labor and personnel sciences not related?
a) "Labor Economics";
b) "Transport systems";
c) "Psychology";
d) "Physiology of Labor";
e) "Sociology of Labor".
5 Test. Job description at the enterprise is developed with the aim of:
a) determination of certain qualification requirements, duties, rights and responsibilities of the personnel of the enterprise;
b) hiring workers at the enterprise;
c) selection of personnel for a specific position;
d) in accordance with the current legislation;
e) achieving the strategic goals of the enterprise.
6. Study personnel policy competing enterprises directed to:
a) for the development of new types of products;
b) to determine the strategic course of enterprise development;
c) to create additional jobs;
d) to re-profile the activities of the enterprise;
e) to develop an effective personnel policy for your enterprise.
7. What does investing in human capital include?
a) investment in production;
b) investing in new technologies;
c) expenses for staff development;
d) investing in the construction of new structures.
e) investing in improving the organizational structure of the enterprise.
8. Human capital is:
a) the form of investment in a person, that is, the costs of general and special education, the accumulation of the amount of health from birth and through the upbringing system until the working age, as well as economically significant mobility.
b) investing in means of production;
c) intangible assets of the enterprise.
d) tangible assets of the enterprise;
e) it is a set of forms and methods of work of the administration that ensure an effective result.
9. The functions of personnel management are:
a) a set of directions and approaches to work with personnel, focused on meeting the production and social needs of the enterprise;
b) a set of directions and approaches to improve the efficiency of the enterprise;
c) a set of directions and approaches to increase the authorized fund of the organization;
d) a set of directions and approaches to improve the strategy of the enterprise;
e) a set of directions and measures to reduce the cost of production.
10. The potential of a specialist is:
a) a set of opportunities, knowledge, experience, aspirations and needs;
b) human health;
c) the ability to adapt to new conditions;
d) the ability to improve qualifications on the job;
e) human ability to produce products
11. The horizontal movement of the worker provides for the following situation:
a) transfer from one job to another with a change in salary or level of responsibility;
b) transfer from one job to another without changing wages or level of responsibility;
c) the release of the worker;
d) demotion of a worker in position;
e) promotion of the worker in position.
12. Professiogram is:
a) a list of the rights and obligations of employees;
b) a description of the general labor and special skills of each employee at the enterprise;
c) this is a description of the characteristics of a certain profession, revealing the content of professional work, as well as the requirements for a person.
d) a list of professions that an employee can master within his competence;
e) a list of all professions.
13. What section does the job description not contain?
a) "General Provisions";
b) "Main tasks";
c) "Job responsibilities";
d) "Management powers";
e) "Conclusions".
14. Intellectual conflicts are based on:
a) on the collision of approximately equal in strength, but oppositely directed needs, motives, interests and hobbies in the same person;
b) a clash of armed groups of people;
c) on the struggle of ideas in science, unity and the collision of such opposites as true and erroneous;
d) on the confrontation between good and evil, duties and conscience;
e) on the confrontation between justice and injustice.
15. A conflict situation is:
a) clash of interests of different people with aggressive actions;
b) objects, people, phenomena, events, relationships that must be brought to a certain balance to ensure a comfortable state of the individuals who are in the field of this situation;
c) the state of negotiations during the conflict;
d) determining the stages of the conflict;
e) conflicting positions of the parties regarding the solution of any issues.
16. At what stage of the conflict does a clear (visual) manifestation of acute disagreements appear, achieved during the conflict:
a) the beginning;
b) development;
c) culmination;
d) ending;
e). post-conflict syndrome as a psychological experience.
17. The latent period of the conflict is characterized by the following feature:
a) the parties have not yet declared their claims to each other;
b) one of the parties admits itself defeated or a truce is reached;
c) public identification of antagonism both for the parties to the conflict themselves and for outside observers;
d) extreme aggressive discontent, blocking of aspirations, prolonged negative emotional experience that disorganizes consciousness and activity;
e) there are no external aggressive actions between the conflicting parties, but indirect methods of influence are used.
18. The style of behavior in a conflict situation, characterized by the active struggle of the individual for his interests, the use of all means available to him to achieve the goals set is:
a) adaptation, compliance;
b) evasion;
c) confrontation, competition;
d) cooperation;
e) compromise.
19. Comprehensive assessment of work is:
a) assessment of professional knowledge and skills using test questions;
b) determination of a set of estimated indicators of quality, complexity and efficiency of work and comparison with previous periods using weighting factors;
c) assessment of professional knowledge, habits and intelligence levels using test questions;
d) determination of professional knowledge and habits using special tests with their further decoding.
e) assessment of professional knowledge, habits and the level of intelligence using sociological surveys.
20. Collegiality in management is a situation when:
a) the personnel of a certain unit are colleagues in relation to each other;
b) only the head of the organization can manage personnel, but he can delegate some powers to his subordinates;
c) there is a decentralization of the organization's management;
d) employers work in close contact with each other and are linked by bonds of cooperation and interdependence, constitute a management staff.
e) there is a centralization of management of the organization.
21. What subsystem of personnel management is aimed at developing a promising personnel policy:
a) functional;
b) tactical;
c) manager;
d) providing;
e) strategic.
22. The goal of which school was to create universal principles of management:
a) school of scientific management;
d) school of behavioral science;
23. The personnel potential of the enterprise is:
a) a set of working specialists who get a job, study and improve their qualifications with a break from production;
b) a set of working specialists;
c) the totality of those applying for a job;
d) a set of students and advanced training on-the-job;
e) the totality of those moving up the career ladder.
24. What is the provision of the theory of acquired needs D McClleland:
b) the distribution of all workers to those who want to work and those who do not want to work;
c) the worker has a need for achievement, for complicity, for power;
d) a person's need to be fairly rewarded;
e) all human needs are located in a certain hierarchy.
25. What theory of motivation belongs to the procedural theories?
a) A. Maslow's theory of needs;
b) V. Vroom's theory of expectation;
c) D. McCleland's theory of acquired needs;
d) K. Alderfer's theory of existence, connection and growth;
e) F. Getsberg's theory of two factors.
26. Valence according to the theory of V. Vroom is:
a) the measure of remuneration;
b) a measure of expectation;
in expectation certain remuneration in response to achieving results;
d) a measure of value or priority;
e) expectation of the desired result from the additional effort expended.
27. The main thesis of which theory is that people subjectively determine the ratio of the reward received to the effort expended and correlate with the reward of other people?
a) A. Maslow's theory of needs;
b) V. Vroom's theory of expectation;
c) the extended Porter - Lawler expectation model;
d) D. McClleland's theory of acquired needs;
e) S. Adams' theory of equality.
Test - 28. BF Skinner's theory of amplification based on this position:
a) highlighting hygienic and motivating factors;
b) people's behavior is due to the consequences of their activities in a similar situation in the past;
c) all human needs located in a certain hierarchy;
d) a person's need is based on fair remuneration;
e) the worker has a need for achievement, for complicity, for power;
a) B.F.Skinner;
b) S. Adams;
c) V. Vroom;
d) the Porter - Lawler model;
e) F. Herzberg.
30. What position relates to the theory of motivation Porter-Lawler:
a) effective work leads to employee satisfaction;
b) a responsible person;
c) people's behavior is due to the consequences of their activities in a similar situation in the past;
d) a person seeks to delegate authority;
e) a person is satisfied only with economic incentives.
31. What needs in A. Maslow's theory are basic (located at the lowest level of the hierarchy of needs)?
a) physiological;
b) security and safety;
c) affiliation and involvement;
d) recognition and respect;
e) self-expression.
32. What position does not apply to the theory of motivation F. Herzberg:
a) the lack of hygienic factors leads to dissatisfaction with work;
b) the presence of motivators can only partially and incompletely compensate for the lack of hygiene factors;
c) under normal conditions, the presence of hygienic factors is perceived as natural and does not have a motivational effect;
d) the maximum positive motivational impact is achieved with the help of motivators in the presence of hygiene factors;
e) the maximum positive motivational impact is achieved with the help of motivators in the absence of hygiene factors;
33. How many groups of needs is allocated by the theoretical model of motivation K. Alderfer:
at four;
34. The average wage level for one employee is calculated:
a) as the ratio of quality products to the total volume of marketable products;
b) as the ratio of profit to the cost of production;
c) as the ratio of the cost to the cost of marketable products;
d) as the ratio of the volume of products produced to the total workers;
e) as the ratio of the general wage fund to the total number of personnel.
35. What leadership style does not include the model describing the dependence of the leadership style on the situation proposed by T. Mitchell and R. House?
a) "support style";
b) "instrumental" style;
c) style oriented towards achievement;
d) leadership style focused on the participation of subordinates in decision-making;
e) the "offer" style.
36. Which leadership style does not include theory life cycle P. Hersey and C. Blanchard?
a) "give directions" style;
b) "sell instructions";
c) "inform".
d) "participate";
e) "delegate";
37. Test. How many leadership options does the Vroom-Yetton leadership style model highlight:
b) four;
38. Which of the five basic leadership styles, according to the two-dimensional model of leader behavior (Blake and Mouton's management grid), is the most effective?
a) "fear of poverty";
b) "Team" (group control);
c) "Rest House - Country Club";
d) "Power - subordination - task";
e) "In the middle of the way";
39. What kind of power implies the belief of the performer that the influencer has the ability to satisfy his needs:
c) expert authority;
d) reference power;
e) legal authority.
40. What kind of power implies the belief of the performer that the influential has the ability to force and the full right to punish:
a) power based on coercion;
b) power based on reward;
c) expert authority;
d) reference power;
e) legal authority.
41. What kind of power implies the performer's belief that the leader has special knowledge and competence that will satisfy his needs:
a) power based on coercion;
b) power based on reward;
c) expert authority;
d) reference power;
e) legal authority.
42. What kind of authority implies the belief of the performer that the influential has the right to give orders and that it is his duty to obey them:
a) power based on coercion;
b) power based on reward;
c) expert authority;
d) reference power;
e) legal authority.
43 In what kind of power are the characteristics and properties of the influencer so attractive to the performer that he wants to be the same as the influencer:
a) power based on coercion;
b) power based on reward;
c) expert authority;
d) reference power;
e) legal authority.
44 Determination of the qualifications of a specialist, the level of knowledge or feedback on his abilities, business and other qualities:
a) certification;
d) job description;
e) approbation.
45 A leader with enough power to impose his will on the performers.
a) an autocratic leader;
b) a democratic leader;
c) liberal leader;
d) advisory leader;
e) instrumental leader.
46 Conflicts, depending on the method of resolution, are divided into:
a) social, national, ethnic, interethnic, organizational, emotional;
b) antagonistic, compromising;
c) vertical, horizontal;
d) open, hidden, potential;
e) intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup, intergroup.
47 The costs of health care, education, physical formation, intellectual development, obtaining general education, the acquisition of a specialty is:
a) investments in the construction of sports complexes;
b) investment in human capital;
c) investment in new technologies;
d) investments in production;
e) investments in educational and recreational complexes.
48 The indicator is characterized by a change in price indices for goods and services that are included in the consumer baskets of the minimum consumer budget:
a) price indices;
b) the index of the cost of living;
c) indices of agricultural products;
d) indices of livestock production;
e) indices of crop production.
49 Intangible personal property: a product of intellectual activity, which manifests itself in the effect of use in various spheres of society:
a) intangible property;
b) intellectual property;
c) radio frequency resource;
d) material property;
e) aerospace development.
50 Regulates the relationship between employers, i.e. buyers of intellectual work products and the subjects of intellectual activity themselves regarding the formation of the price of intellectual work:
a) the infrastructure of the financial market;
b) agricultural exchanges;
c) infrastructure of the intellectual labor market;
d) funds for promoting entrepreneurship;
e) owners of intellectual work.
51 What does the infrastructure of the knowledge labor market not include:
a) labor exchanges;
b) agricultural exchanges;
c) funds and employment centers;
d) centers, institutes for retraining and advanced training of specialists;
e) electronic labor markets (automated data banks);
52 Skills to understand and interact effectively with other people:
a) semantic;
b) communicative;
c) non-verbal;
d) verbal;
e) professional.
53 What feature is characteristic of a formal group (team) in an organization:
a) association by interests and goals;
b) there is no clear role structure - division of labor and management;
c) a sign of a social community (for example, by nationality, signs of social origin);
d) groups have different social significance in society, at the enterprise - positive or negative;
e) the structure of collectives and groups is determined by the relevant official documents that provide for the range of responsibilities and rights of both the entire collective and the individual employees included in it.
54 A calculated indicator that takes into account logical thinking, the ability to achieve a set goal, the objectivity of self-assessment, the ability to formulate informed judgments:
a) intelligence quotient (IQ);
b) the coefficient of the tariff scale;
c) labor productivity;
d) annual salary;
e) the value of human capital.
55 Which component does not include a person's labor potential:
a) human health;
b) education;
c) professionalism;
d) creativity (ability to work, think in a new way);
e) deposit accounts in banks.
56 What is staff adaptation?
a) improving theoretical knowledge and practical skills in order to increase professional excellence workers, their assimilation of advanced technology, technology, means of production;
b) activities that are carried out deliberately to improve the capabilities of personnel, which are necessary to perform work or to develop the potential of employees;
c) participation in the recruitment and selection of personnel, taking into account the requirements of specific professions and jobs in order to provide the best career guidance for employees;
d) the relationship between the employee and the organization, which is based on the gradual adaptation of employees to new professional, social, organizational and economic working conditions;
e) participation of personnel in certification.
57 The division of labor provides for:
a) the performance by one employee of all functions and actions for the manufacture of a specific product;
b) division of labor according to systematized labor functions;
c) a careful calculation of the costs of work for the production of products and services.
d) performance by one employee of all functions and actions for the manufacture of a set of products;
e) performance by several employees of one function for the manufacture of a complex product.
58 Normalized work time includes:
a) all expenditures of time that are objectively necessary to complete a specific task;
b) the total duration of the work shift during which the employee performs labor functions;
c) the time of preparatory work for the task;
d) the time of service of the workplace;
e) a) all expenditures of time that are objectively necessary to complete all tasks.
59 The production rate is based on:
a) on the establishment of norms of time expenditure;
b) on determining the amount of products to be manufactured by one worker;
c) on the establishment of norms of work costs;
d) at the time of service of the workplace;
e) at the required number of workplaces, the size of production areas and other production facilities assigned for servicing one employee or team.
60 The method of personnel assessment, which provides for a conversation with an employee in a "question-answer" mode, according to a previously drawn up scheme or without it for obtaining additional information about a person, is a method:
a) interviewing;
b) questionnaires;
c) sociological survey;
d) testing;
e) observation.
61 A conscious urge of a person to take a certain action is:
b) needs;
c) claims;
d) expectations;
e) incentives.
62 Benefits, material values, to obtain which is aimed labor activity a person is:
b) needs;
c) claims;
d) expectations;
e) incentives.
63 Methods involving the transfer of information to employees that allow them to independently organize their behavior and their activities are:
a) different methods incentives;
b) methods of information;
c) methods of persuasion;
d) methods of administrative coercion;
e) economic methods.
64 Among the qualitative indicators of the effectiveness of the management system, single out the quantitative indicator:
a) the level of qualifications of employees of the management apparatus;
b) the validity and timeliness of decision-making by management personnel;
c) the level of use of scientific methods, organizational and computer technology;
d) the level of organizational culture;
e) the amount of expenses for the maintenance of the management apparatus in the general staff wages fund.
65 The ratio of the increase in labor productivity to the increase in average wages is:
a) the level of staff turnover;
b) production profitability;
c) payroll fund;
d) the level of labor discipline;
e) the ratio of the rate of increase in labor productivity to wages.
66 The ratio of the number of dismissed employees to the total number of personnel is calculated:
a) the level of labor discipline;
b) the reliability of the personnel;
c) staff turnover;
d) social and psychological climate in the team;
e) the coefficient of labor contribution.
67. Test. The ratio of the number of cases of violation of labor and executive discipline to the total number of personnel is an indicator:
a) the reliability of the personnel;
b) the level of labor discipline;
c) staff turnover;
d) socio-psychological climate in the team;
e) the coefficient of labor contribution.
68 What type of unemployment characterizes the best labor force reserve for the economy, capable of sufficiently quickly making inter-sectoral movements depending on fluctuations in labor demand and supply?
a) structural unemployment;
b) technological unemployment;
c) natural unemployment;
d) economic unemployment;
e) involuntary unemployment.
69 Which school of management thought that observation, measurement, logic, and analysis could improve many manual operations to make them more efficient?
a) classical school or school of administration;
b) the school of human relations;
c) school of behavioral science;
d) school of scientific management;
e) school of management science or quantitative methods.
70 Scientists of which school of management first defined management as “making work done with the help of others”?
a) school of scientific management;
b) classical school or school of administration;
c) the school of human relations;
d) school of behavioral science;
e) school of management science or quantitative methods.
71 Researchers from which school of management recommended the use of human relations management techniques that include more effective actions by supervisors, consultation with employees, and giving them more opportunities to communicate at work?
a) school of scientific management;
b) classical school or school of administration;
c) school of behavioral science;
d) the school of human relations;
e) school of management science or quantitative methods.
72 Researchers from which school of management studied various aspects of social interaction, motivation, the nature of power and authority, organizational structure, communication in organizations, leadership, changes in the content of work and the quality of working life?
a) school of scientific management;
b) classical school or school of administration;
c) the school of human relations;
d) school of behavioral science;
e) school of management science or quantitative methods.
73 Key characteristic What school of management is the replacement of verbal reasoning and descriptive analysis with models, symbols and quantitative values?
a) school of scientific management;
b) classical school or school of administration;
c) the school of human relations;
d) school of behavioral science;
e) school of management science or quantitative methods.
74 Which of the 14 principles of management outlined by Henri Fayol will achieve better results with the same amount of effort:
a) autocracy (one-man rule);
b) division of labor (specialization);
c) unity of direction and single plan work;
d) scalar control chain;
e) stability of the workplace for staff.
75 According to what principle, outlined by Henri Fayol, a person should receive orders from only one boss and obey only him?
a) one-man management;
b) scalar control chain;
in order;
d) initiative;
76 Which of the schools in the theory of development of personnel management formulated management functions:
a) school of scientific management;
b) classical school or school of administration;
c) the school of human relations;
d) school of behavioral science;
e) school of management science or quantitative methods.
Test - 77 Which approach helps to integrate the contributions of all schools that at different times dominated the theory and practice of management:
a) situational approach;
b) process approach;
c) a systematic approach?
78 Model "Z" contains the basic ideas of American and Japanese management and is regarded by most specialists as ideal. It combines a system of individual values \u200b\u200band group forms of interaction. Which of the following ideas is typical for American management:
a) long-term work at the enterprise;
b) adoption of strategic and management decisionsbased on the principle of consensus;
c) individual responsibility;
d) slow job promotionthat allows you to accurately assess the ability of employees;
e) increased attention to the personality of the employee, his family and household concerns.
79 Which of the presented factors of the efficiency of the enterprise is most conducive to stimulating the activities of employees:
a) strategic goal;
b) information;
c) management methods;
d) motivation system;
e) selection of personnel.
a) establish meaningful standards perceived by employees;
b) establish two-way communication;
c) avoid excessive control;
d) establish rigid but achievable standards;
e) reward for achieving the standard.
81 There are four main types of human behavior, the formation of which occurs on the basis of people's attitude to the norms of behavior and values \u200b\u200bof the enterprise. What type of behavior is characterized by high reliability:
a) dedicated and disciplined (fully accepts the values \u200b\u200band norms of behavior, his actions do not conflict with the interests of the organization);
b) "original" (accepts the values \u200b\u200bof the enterprise, but does not accept the norms of behavior existing on it, generates many difficulties in relationships with colleagues and management);
c) "opportunist" (does not accept the values \u200b\u200bof the enterprise, tries to behave, completely following the norms and forms of behavior adopted at the enterprise);
d) "rebel" (does not accept either the norms of behavior or the values \u200b\u200bof the enterprise, all the time comes into conflict with the environment and creates conflict situations).
82 According to Theory "X", a leader should:
a) coerce subordinates;
b) threaten subordinates;
c) understand them and stimulate work;
d) respect subordinates;
e) do the work for them.
83 From the point of view of the "Y" theory, the manager must believe in the potential of the person and treat the subordinates as responsible people striving for full self-realization. According to this theory:
a) work is not contrary to human nature;
b) work gives people satisfaction;
c) employees are trying to get everything they can from the company;
d) the person does not like to work;
e) a person is ready to work only for high material remuneration.
84. In order to effectively use money as a motivator and avoid its impact as a demotivator, you should:
a) pay competitive salaries to attract and retain specialists;
b) pay wages that reflect the cost of work for the enterprise on an equitable basis;
c) link the pay with the quality of performance or result so that the reward is commensurate with the efforts of the employee;
d) assure the employee that his efforts will be rewarded with an appropriate reward;
e) pay wages not less than the subsistence level.
85. According to what principle outlined by Henri Fayol, in order to ensure the loyalty and support of workers, they should receive payment for their service?
a) one-man management;
b) scalar chain;
in order;
d) staff remuneration;
e) authority and responsibility.
86. What type of power influences people through culturally imparted values:
a) power based on coercion;
b) power based on reward;
c) traditional or legal authority;
d) expert authority;
e) the power of charisma (influence by the force of example).
87. The main socio-psychological factor affecting the effectiveness of the group is:
b) structure (the order of organization of the group - the distribution of the roles of its members);
c) culture (the basic assumptions developed by the group regarding the ways of perceiving thoughts and feelings during the task);
d) process (the way employees interact when performing a specific task, for example, a decision-making procedure in a group).
88. While strengthening the authority, the manager must make sure that he does not suppress, does not hinder the initiative of subordinates. Which of the following types of pseudo-authority (false authority) deprives people of confidence, initiative, gives rise to reinsurance and even dishonesty:
89. What type of role in an informal group is assigned to a person developing new approaches to old problems, proposing new ideas and strategies?
a) coordinator;
b) a creative person;
c) critic;
d) performer;
e) administrator.
90. What information does not apply to transmitted through informal communication channels:
a) the forthcoming layoffs of production workers;
b) upcoming movements and promotions;
c) a detailed account of the dispute between the two executives at the last sales meeting;
d) rumors about upcoming changes in the structure of the organization;
e) orders and orders of the general director.
91. Highlight the main type of behavior characteristic of a charismatic leader (charisma - personal charm):
a) focusing on issues of particular importance, concentrating communication on major issues in order to involve others in analysis, problem solving and planning of actions;
b) the ability to take risks, but only based on careful calculations of the chances of success, and in such a way as to create opportunities for others to participate;
c) skillful interaction with understanding and empathy, the confidence that such effective two-way interaction is obtained only through active listening and feedback;
d) expression of active care for people, including about oneself, modeling, self-respect and strengthening of self-esteem in others, involving people in making important decisions;
e) demonstration of consistency and reliability in their behavior, open expression of their views and adherence to them in practical matters.
92. Which of the presented leadership styles should be applied in extreme (emergency) situations:
c) liberal;
d) anarchic;
e) neutral.;
93. A leadership style that adheres to the principles of hands-off, team members are encouraged to express themselves creatively, is:
b) democratic;
c) anarchic;
d) cooperative;
e) permissive.
94. The management grid, or R. Blake and D. Mouton's grid, includes five main approaches of leadership and is a 9x9 table of positions. The vertical line (nine values \u200b\u200bof the matrix code) means taking care of a person. Nine values \u200b\u200bhorizontally indicate production care. Which of the styles is optimal for developing a strategy in conflict situations:
b) socio-psychological (increased attention to human needs creates a friendly atmosphere and an appropriate pace of production - code 1.9);
c) liberal (minimum attention to the results of production and the person - code 1.1);
d) cooperative (high results are obtained by interested employees pursuing a common goal - code 9.9);
e) compromise (satisfactory results, average job satisfaction, a tendency to compromise and traditions inhibit the development of an optimistic view - code 5.5).
95. When in the process production activities the interests of different people or special groups collide, the main cause of the conflict is:
a) resource allocation;
b) unsatisfied communications;
c) differences in goals;
d) differences in perceptions and values;
e) the difference in demeanor and life experience.
96. Which of the conflict resolution styles is aimed at finding a solution through mutual concessions, at developing an intermediate solution that suits both parties, in which no one particularly gains, but does not lose either.
a) competition style;
b) evasion style;
d) the style of the device;
e) the style of compromise.
97. Communication networks show:
a) the degree of division of labor in the enterprise;
b) the level of centralization of powers;
c) a diagram of the structure of the enterprise;
d) the whole set of connections between the elements of the enterprise;
e) horizontal communications.
98. The price of labor is:
a) it is an expedient activity of a person (people) aimed at changing and transforming reality to meet their needs, creating material goods and services (or) spiritual values;
b) wages and benefits actually paid by the employer, taking into account state regulation in this area;
c) a measure of the ability to generate income embodied in a person. Includes innate ability and talent, as well as education and acquired qualifications.
d) supply and demand for intellectual labor;
e) the totality of his opportunities for creative work.
99. What is not the task of the personnel management system?
a) social and psychological diagnostics of personnel;
b) planning the need for personnel;
c) analysis and regulation of group and personal relationships between the leader and subordinates;
d) marketing of personnel;
e) all of the above is included in the tasks of the personnel management system.
100. What are not HR functions?
a) forecasting and planning the need and staffing, motivation and staffing;
b) registration and accounting of personnel; creation of optimal working conditions; training and movement of personnel;
c) labor rationing; analysis and development of ways to stimulate labor;
d) assessment, coordination and control of performance results;
e) all of the above are HR functions.
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Tangible and intangible goods and services.
In all developed countries the economy consists of two interrelated and complementary spheres of production aimed at obtaining benefits:
material,where the product is created in material and material form, for example, footwear, machine tools, cement, coal;
intangible,where spiritual, moral and other values \u200b\u200bare created - works of culture, art, science, etc.
Benefits- means of meeting the needs of people.
There are many criteria on the basis of which different types of goods are distinguished (Figure 2.2). Benefits can be classified into:
1) material, including natural gifts of nature (land, air, water, climate); manufactured products (food, buildings, structures, machines, tools);
2) intangible, having the form of activities useful to people and affecting the development of human abilities. They are created in the non-production sphere: healthcare, education, culture, etc. These include internal benefits given to man by nature - the ability to science, voice, ear for music, etc., as well as external benefits - what the outside world gives for satisfaction of needs (reputation, business relations, patronage, etc.).
The vital activity of a person in the process of managing is manifested, on the one hand, in the waste of energy, resources, etc., and on the other, in the corresponding replenishment of the vital expenditure. In this case, an economic entity (i.e. a person in economic activity) seeks to act rationally - by comparing costs and benefits. This behavior is explained as follows.
An essential feature of human life and activity is dependence on the material world. Some of the material goods are in abundance and therefore they are always available to people (air, sun rays, wind energy). Such goods in economic theory are called free or non-economic... As long as these conditions persist, these benefits and needs for them are not the concerns and calculations of a person, therefore, they are not studied in the economy.
Other material goods are available in limited quantities (various kinds of "rarity"). In order to satisfy the needs in them and to have them in an accessible quantity, human efforts are needed to obtain them, to adapt to the needs.
These benefits are called economic (or household). The well-being of people depends on the possession of these benefits, so they treat them carefully, economically, and prudently.
A specific form of economic good is goods, i.e. products of labor created for exchange (sale).
Until now, it has only been about goods, but the production process includes the provision of services.
Services- this economic activity a person, the results of which are expressed in meeting the personal needs of the population and society as a whole.
Distinguish between material and non-material services. The first type includes transport, storage, utilities, postal and other services, the second - the services of lawyers, police officers, university teachers, artists, etc.
The latest ideas about the structure of highly developed production are schematically summarized in Fig. 2.3.
A specific form of an economic good is a commodity, i.e. good produced for exchange. A more detailed description of the goods will be given by us in Chapter 5. Now it is important to find out that in the process of human economic activity, goods and services are produced that satisfy certain needs of people. If there is no need for a manufactured product (service), there are no people willing to purchase it, there will be no sales market for it and the manufacturer will not receive any benefit from its production. As a result, such a product will not be produced.
In economic theory, the concept of "material good" is poorly developed. It is believed to be unambiguous. In addition, there is an approximate list of benefits, so scientists think little about this. In this case, the phenomenon has a number of features that are worth dwelling on.
Good concept
Even the ancient Greek philosophers began to think about what is good for man. It has always been perceived as something positive for the individual, bringing him pleasure and comfort. But there was no consensus for a long time that this could be. For Socrates, it was the ability to think, the mind of man. An individual can reason and form correct opinions - this is his main goal, value, purpose.
Plato believed that goodness is a cross between intelligence and pleasure. In his opinion, the concept cannot be reduced to either one or the other. Good is something mixed, elusive. Aristotle comes to the conclusion that there is no one good for all. He closely links the concept with morality, arguing that only the correspondence of pleasure with ethical principles can be good. Therefore, the main role in the creation of benefits for a person was assigned to the state. From here came two traditions of considering them as a model of virtue or a source of pleasure.
Indian philosophy identified four main benefits for man: pleasure, virtue, benefit and liberation from suffering. Moreover, its component is the presence of a certain benefit from a thing or event. Later, material good began to be correlated and even identified with the concept of God. And only the emergence of economic theories translates thinking about the good into practical area... In the broadest sense, they mean something that satisfies the requirements and meets the interests of a person.
Properties of goods
In order for a material benefit to become such, it must meet certain conditions and have the following properties:
- the good must be objective, that is, fixed in some kind of material medium;
- it is universal, since it has significance for many or all people;
- the good must have social significance;
- it is abstract and intelligible, since it reflects in the consciousness of a person and society a certain concrete form, as a result of production and social relations.
At the same time, benefits have the main property - this is utility. That is, they should bring real benefits to people. This is where their value lies.
The good and needs of man
In order for the good to be recognized as such, several conditions must be met:
- it must meet the needs of the person;
- the good must have objective properties and characteristics that allow it to be useful, that is, to be able to improve the life of society;
- a person must understand that the good can satisfy his certain requirements and needs;
- a person can dispose of good at his own discretion, that is, choose the time and method of satisfying the need.
To understand the essence of goods, you need to remember what needs are. They are understood as internal incentives that are implemented in activities. The need begins with an awareness of the need, which is associated with a feeling of lack of something. It creates discomfort of varying degrees of intensity, an unpleasant feeling of lack of something. It makes you take any action, look for a way to satisfy the need.
A person is simultaneously attacked by several needs and he ranks them, choosing to satisfy at first the actual ones. Traditionally, biological or organic needs are distinguished: for food, sleep, reproduction. There are also social needs: the need to belong to a group, the desire for respect, interaction with other people, the achievement of a certain status. As far as spiritual needs are concerned, these requirements are of the highest order. These include the cognitive need, the need for self-affirmation and self-realization, the search for the meaning of existence.
A person is constantly busy meeting his needs. This process leads to the desired state of pleasure, gives in the final stage positive feelings, to which any individual aspires. The process of the emergence and satisfaction of needs is called motivation, since it forces a person to carry out activities. He always has a choice of how best to achieve the desired result and he independently selects best ways removing the deficit state. To satisfy needs, the individual uses various objects and it is they who can be called good, since they lead a person to a pleasant feeling of satisfaction and are part of a large economic and social activity.
Economic theory of goods
The science of economics could not ignore such a question of the good. Since the material needs of a person are satisfied with the help of objects produced on the basis of resources, the theory of economic benefits arises. They are understood as objects and their properties that can meet the requirements and desires of a person. The peculiarity of the process of satisfying material needs is such that the needs of people always exceed production capabilities. Therefore, the benefits are always less than the needs for them. Thus, economic resources always have a special property - a rarity. There are always fewer of them on the market than necessary. This creates an increased demand for economic goods and allows them to be priced.
For their production, resources are always needed, and they, in turn, are limited. In addition, material goods have another property - utility. They are always associated with benefits. There is the concept of marginal utility, that is, the possibility of good to satisfy the need most fully. Moreover, as consumption progresses, the marginal demand decreases. So, a hungry person satisfies the need for food with the first 100 grams of food, but he continues to eat, while the benefit decreases. The positive characteristics of various goods may be similar. A person chooses what is necessary from them, focusing not only on this indicator, but also on other factors: price, psychological and aesthetic satisfaction, etc.
Classification of goods
Diverse consumption of material goods leads to the fact that in economic theory there are several ways to divide them into types. First of all, they are classified according to the degree of limitation. There are goods for the production of which resources are expended and they are finite. They are called economic or material. There are also benefits that are unlimited, such as sunlight or air. They are called non-economic or gratuitous.
Depending on the method of consumption, goods are divided into consumer and production. The former are designed to meet the needs of the end user. The latter are necessary for the production of consumer goods (for example, machines, technology, land). Also, material and non-material, private and public goods are distinguished.
Material and intangible benefits
Various human needs require specific means to satisfy them. In this regard, there are material and non-material benefits. The first includes objects comprehended by the senses. A material benefit is everything that can be touched, sniffed, examined. Usually they can accumulate and be used for a long time. Allocate material benefits of one-time, current and long-term use.
The second category is intangible goods. They are usually associated with services. Intangible benefits are created in the non-productive sphere and affect the state and abilities of a person. These include health services, education, trade, service, etc.
Public and private
Depending on the way of consumption, material goods can be characterized as private or public. The first kind is consumed by one person who paid for it and owns it. These are means of individual demand: cars, clothes, food. The public good is indivisible, it belongs to a large group of people who collectively pay for it. This type includes protection environment, cleanliness and order on the roads and in public places, the protection of law and order and the country's defense.
Production and distribution of wealth
The creation of wealth is a complex, costly process. Its organization requires the efforts and resources of many people. In fact, the entire sphere of the economy is engaged in the production of material goods. different kind... Depending on the dominant needs, the sphere can be independently regulated by releasing the necessary goods. The distribution of wealth is not easy. At the same time, the market is an instrument, however, there is also a social sphere. It is in it that the state assumes distribution functions in order to reduce social tension.
Service as a blessing
Despite the fact that it is customary to understand material goods as a means of satisfying a need, services are also a means of eliminating needs. Economic theory today he actively uses this concept. According to her, material services are a kind of economic good. Their peculiarity lies in the fact that the service is intangible, it is impossible to accumulate or evaluate it before it is received. At the same time, it also possesses usefulness and rarity, like other economic goods.
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