The history of the creation of the spacecraft Buran. Soviet reusable orbital ship "Buran" (11F35). Differences from the Space Shuttle

On November 15, 1988, the launch spaceship reusable "Buran". After the launch of the universal rocket and space transport system"Energy" with "Buran", he went into orbit, made two orbits around the Earth and made an automatic landing at the Baikonur Cosmodrome.
This flight was an outstanding breakthrough in Soviet science and opened a new stage in the development of the Soviet space research program.

The fact that in the Soviet Union it is necessary to create a domestic reusable space system that would serve as a counterweight to the policy of containing potential adversaries (Americans) was told by analytical studies conducted by the Institute of Applied Mathematics of the USSR Academy of Sciences and NPO Energia (1971-1975). Their result was the assertion that if the Americans launch the reusable Space Shuttle system, they will receive an advantage and the ability to deliver nuclear missile strikes. And although the American system did not pose an immediate threat at that time, it could threaten the country's security in the future.
Work on the creation of the Energia-Buran program began in 1976. About 2.5 million people took part in this process, representing 86 ministries and departments, as well as about 1,300 enterprises throughout the territory. Soviet Union. For the development of the new ship, the Molniya NPO was specially created, headed by G.E. Lozino-Lozinsky, who already in the 60s worked on the Spiral reusable rocket and space system.

It should also be noted that, despite the fact that for the first time the ideas for the creation of spaceships-airplanes were expressed precisely by the Russians, namely by Friedrich Zander back in 1921, domestic designers were in no hurry to put his ideas into practice, since this seemed to them extremely troublesome . True, work was carried out on the design of the Gliding Spacecraft, however, due to technical problems that arose, all work was stopped.
But work on the creation of winged spacecraft began to be carried out only in response to the beginning of such work by the Americans.

So, when in the 60s work began on the creation of the Dyna-Soar rocket plane in the USA, work was launched in the USSR on the creation of rocket planes R-1, R-2, Tu-130 and Tu-136. But the greatest success of Soviet designers was the Spiral project, which was to become a harbinger of Buran.
From the very beginning, the program to create a new spacecraft was torn apart by conflicting requirements: on the one hand, the designers were required to copy the American Shuttle in order to reduce possible technical risks, reduce the time and cost of development, on the other hand, the need to adhere to the program put forward by V. .Glushko on the creation of unified rockets intended for landing an expedition on the surface of the moon.
During the formation appearance"Buran" were offered two options. The first option was similar to the American "Shuttle" and was a layout of an aircraft with a horizontal landing and the placement of engines in the tail. The second option was a wingless scheme with a vertical landing, its advantage was that it was possible to reduce the design time by using data from the Soyuz spacecraft.

As a result, after testing, a horizontal landing scheme was adopted as the basis, since it most fully met the requirements put forward. The payload was located on the side, and the main engines of the second stage were located in the central block. The choice of this location was due to the lack of confidence that in short time it will be possible to create a reusable hydrogen engine, as well as the need to preserve a full-fledged launch vehicle that could independently launch not only a ship, but also large volumes of payloads into orbit. If we look a little ahead, we note that such a decision was fully justified: Energia managed to ensure the launch of large-sized devices into orbit (it was 5 times more powerful than the Proton launch vehicle and 3 times more powerful than the Space Shuttle).
The first and only Burana sings, as we said above, took place in 1988. The flight was carried out in unmanned mode, that is, there was no crew on it. It should be noted that, despite the outward resemblance to the American Shuttle, the Soviet model had a number of advantages. First of all, these ships were distinguished by the fact that the domestic one could launch into space, in addition to the ship itself, also additional cargo, and also had greater maneuverability during landing. The shuttles were designed in such a way that they landed with their engines turned off, so they could not, if necessary, try again. Buran, on the other hand, was equipped with turbojet engines, which made it possible in case of bad weather conditions or any unforeseen situations. In addition, the Buran was equipped with an emergency crew rescue system. At a low altitude, the cockpit with pilots could be ejected, and at high altitudes, it was possible to disconnect the module from the launch vehicle and make an emergency landing. Another significant difference was the automatic flight mode, which was not available on American ships.

It should also be noted that the Soviet designers had no illusions about the cost-effectiveness of the project - according to calculations, the launch of one Buran cost the same as launching hundreds of disposable rockets. However, initially the Soviet ship was developed as a military space system. After graduation cold war this aspect has ceased to be relevant, which cannot be said about spending. So his fate was sealed.
In general, the program for the creation of the Buran multi-purpose spacecraft provided for the creation of five ships. Of these, only three were constructed (the construction of the rest was only laid down, but after the program was closed, all the groundwork for them was destroyed). The first of them went into space, the second became an attraction in the Moscow Gorky Park, and the third stands in the Museum of Technology in Sinsheim, Germany.

But first, technological mock-ups (9 in total) were created in full size, which were intended for strength testing and crew training.
It should also be noted that practically enterprises from all over the Soviet Union took part in the creation of Buran. So, at the Kharkov "Energopribor" a complex of autonomous control "Energy" was created, which launched the ship into space. The Antonov ASTC carried out the design and manufacture of parts for the ship, and also created the An-225 Mriya, which was used to deliver the Buran.
To test the Buran spacecraft, 27 candidates were trained, who were divided into military and civilian test pilots. This division was due to the fact that this ship was planned to be used not only for defense purposes, but also for the needs of the national economy. The leaders of the group were Colonel Ivan Bachurin and an experienced civilian pilot Igor Vovk (this was the reason that his group was called the “wolf pack”).

Despite the fact that the Buran flight was completed in automatic mode, nevertheless, seven testers managed to visit orbit, however, on other ships: I. Vovk, A. Levchenko, V. Afanasiev, A. Artsebarsky, G. Manakov, L. Kadenyuk, V. Tokarev. Unfortunately, many of them are no longer among us.
More testers were lost by a civilian detachment - the testers, continuing to prepare for the Buran program, simultaneously test other aircraft, flew and died one after another. O. Kononenko was the first to die. A. Levchenko followed him. A little later, A. Shchukin, R. Stankyavichus, Y. Prikhodko, Y. Sheffer also passed away.
Commander I.Vovk himself, having lost so many people close to him, left the flight service in 2002. A few months later, trouble happened to the Buran spacecraft itself: it was damaged by debris from the roof of one of the assembly and test buildings at the Baikonur Cosmodrome, where the ship was stored.

In some media, you can find information that in fact there were two Buran flights, but one was unsuccessful, so information about it is classified. So, in particular, it is said that in 1992 another spacecraft similar to Buran, Baikal, was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, but in the first seconds of the flight the engine failed. Automatics worked, the ship began to return back.
In fact, everything is explained very simply. In 1992, all work on Buran was stopped. As for the name, the original name of the ship was "Baikal", but the top Soviet leadership did not like it, which recommended changing it to a more sonorous one - "Buran". At least, this is what G. Ponomarev, the commander of the engineering and testing department of the Baikonur cosmodrome, who was directly involved in the program, says.
Until now, disputes have not subsided as to whether Buran was needed at all, and why it was necessary to spend such a huge amount of money on a project that is not even used now. But be that as it may, for that time it was a real breakthrough in space science, and even today it has not yet been surpassed.

The Buran snowmobile is produced at a factory in Rybinsk. This is a technique with a powerful engine, which is designed for winter walks, fishing or hunting.

Specifications

Description and specifications Burana-640:

Front suspension type	spring
Rear suspension type	Independent
Number of front springs	1
Number of tracks	2
Tension mechanism	Screw
Gearbox model	Variable speed drive
Number of gears	4
Reverse	There is
Type of brake system	Disk
Brake drive	Mechanical
Power unit start system	Manual, electric starter
Ignition	Contactless
Lubrication system	Combined (gasoline and oil)
Number of seats	2
Permissible mass of towed cargo	250 kg
Speedometer	There is
Heated handles	There is
Headlight	55/60 halogen
Taillight	LED
Piston stroke	7 cm
Fuel used	Gasoline AI-92, AI-76, AI-80
Carburetor Model	Mikuni
Power unit model	RMZ-640
Diameter of cylindrical elements	7.6 cm
Type of working fluid cooling system	aerial
international environmental standard	Euro 2
Fuel tank volume	28 l

Dimensional data

Overall dimensions of the Buran ADE snowmobile caterpillar:

length - 2.87 m;
width - 0.38 m;
height - 0.075 m.

Vehicle dimensions: 2.7 * 0.91 * 1.33 m, weight - 285 kg.

Drawer dimensions

Buran 4TD is equipped with boxes, the size of which is 2.42 * 1.06 * 1.13 m.

Suspension

An elliptical leaf spring front suspension and an independent rear suspension mechanism equipped with a balanced spring are installed.

The stroke of the front and rear mechanism is 5 cm. The number of front springs is 1.

The snowmobile suspension design includes the following elements:

bearing shell;
outer hub;
star;
internal type hub;
fixing bolts and nuts;
sleeve;
video clip;
ski;
axial device;
collar;
buffer;
steering column;
cuff;
thrust washer;
sprocket driven type chain transmission;
retaining ring.

The spring assemblies are attached to the ski sole brackets. The ends of the root sheet must be locked with cotter pins. The longitudinal movement of the springs is carried out by sliding along the bronze insert of the front tip of the main sheet.

Bearings, king pin and handle shaft must be treated with special grease.

mover

This snowmobile is equipped with a tracked propulsion system equipped with drive sprockets. Number of caterpillar mechanisms - 2. Type of caterpillar - reinforced with plastic rods, made of rubber and fabric. The tension mechanism is screw, the height of the lugs is 17.5 mm.

The propulsion unit converts the energy of the power unit through interaction with the environment. Traction is generated by rewinding the tracks.

See » How to do the conservation of a snowmobile for the summer with your own hands

The large contact area of the caterpillar belt device with the soil makes it possible to provide low pressure on the ground and a high level of permeability.

The propulsion device includes the following mechanisms:

driving wheel;
caterpillars;
track rollers;
supporting rollers;
tension mechanism with sloths.

This mechanism allows you to increase maneuverability and extend the life of the vehicle.

Transmission

This snowmobile has a transmission in the form of a variator and a gearbox. The variator consists of a V-belt transmission with automatic change in the working diameter of the drive shaft of the Buran snowmobile caterpillar.

The design of the variator includes:

driving pulley equipped with a centrifugal adjusting device;
driven pulley equipped with a cam-type clutch.

The gearbox consists of:

crankcase;
reverse shaft;
gear change devices;
chain tensioner.

The gearshift mechanism is mounted on the housing cover and consists of an axial device, a shift fork, a spring-loaded ball that enters the axle groove. A cork with a breather hole made of plastic is screwed into the lid.

The tensioner is located at the bottom of the housing. The tension is adjusted by turning the tension shaft. To check the circuit, a special viewing ring is provided in the design.

brakes

The snowmobile is equipped with mechanical disc brakes. The design of the brake system includes the following mechanisms:

main brake cylinder block;
vacuum type amplifier;
a device that regulates the pressure in the rear brake mechanism;
ABS block;
working brake cylindrical elements;
working circuits.

The main brake cylinder converts the traction force, which is transmitted from the brake pedal, into the pressure of the fuel fluid in the system and distributes it to all working circuits.

In order to increase the force that creates pressure, a vacuum hydraulic drive booster is needed.

The control device reduces the level of pressure in the drive of the brake device of the rear wheel elements, which makes it possible to increase the braking efficiency of the vehicle.

The circuits consist of closed pipelines that connect the main cylinders and wheels.

Operating parameters

Overview of operating parameters:

Basic equipment

The basic package includes:

starter;
reverse type transmission;
handle heating;
windshield;
rear hitch;
speedometer;
odometer.

lighting technology

On this modification of the snowmobile, projector headlights of model 17.3711010 are installed. They consist of a body, a bezel and an optical device. The lamp is attached to the optical mechanism with a spring latch. There are 3 pins that are needed to connect the male connector. The screws can be used to adjust the headlights in a horizontal or vertical position.

See » TOP-3 modifications of snowmobiles Dingo (Dingo) and their technical characteristics

The rear light is located on the rear suspension housing, to which it is attached with two screws. Lantern design includes: base, lamp, holder, glasses.

There are 2 safety devices on the vehicle: 15 A and 30 A. They are designed to protect the electrical circuit of the ignition system and the motor.

The brake light is located on the handle of the steering mechanism. It activates the snowmobile handbrake lamp by closing the switch contacts.

Engine

The snowmobile engine Buran RMZ-640 has the following technical specifications:

On some models, the Lifan engine for the Buran snowmobile is installed. Technical indicators:

Repair and breakdown

The main malfunctions and ways to eliminate them:

If the engine does not start, it is necessary to disconnect the ends of the fuel pipe and blow through the system, rinse all filter elements, clean the breather hole, replace gasoline.
If there is no spark on the electrodes of the spark plug, check the mechanism for damage and defects, clean the spark plugs from carbon deposits, and adjust the gap.
If the transmission chain is broken, it is recommended to replace the chain mechanism, for this you will need to remove the track.
If the gearbox is disengaged while driving, the entire mechanism should be disassembled, the spring and other worn parts should be replaced.
If oil is leaking from the gearbox, it is necessary to adjust the cuffs and replace damaged and worn parts.
If the snowmobile does not develop full power, it is recommended to adjust the track tension and centering.

Tuning makes it possible to protect the suspension mechanism and transmission from premature wear.

The improvement of the motor will allow you to start the equipment even at low temperatures environment. If you install heated handles and seat, you can increase the time of walking in cold weather.

In order to use transport in areas with a lot of snow, it is recommended to install an advanced ski model.

Installing a roof rack helps increase safety in the event of a collision with an obstacle or during a vehicle rollover.

The pad on the steering mechanism will help soften the blows in case of accidental collisions, and the installation of additional rear-view mirrors will help to expand the viewing angle.

Progenitor of the snowstorm

Buran was developed under the influence of the experience of overseas colleagues who created the legendary "space shuttles". The Space Shuttle reusable vehicles were designed as part of NASA's Space Transportation System program, and the first shuttle made its first launch on April 12, 1981, on the anniversary of Gagarin's flight. It is this date that can be considered the starting point in the history of reusable spacecraft.

The main disadvantage of the shuttle was its price. The cost of one launch cost US taxpayers $450 million. For comparison, the price of launching a one-time Soyuz is $35-40 million. So why did the Americans take the path of creating just such spacecraft? And why was the Soviet leadership so interested in the American experience? It's all about the arms race.

The Space Shuttle is the brainchild of the Cold War, more precisely, the ambitious Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) program, whose task was to create a system to counter Soviet intercontinental missiles. The colossal scope of the SDI project has led to it being dubbed "Star Wars".

The development of the shuttle did not go unnoticed in the USSR. In the minds of the Soviet military, the ship appeared as something like a superweapon capable of delivering a nuclear strike from the depths of space. In fact, the reusable ship was created only to deliver elements of the missile defense system into orbit. The idea to use the shuttle as an orbital rocket carrier really sounded, but the Americans abandoned it even before the first flight of the ship.

Many in the USSR also feared that the shuttles could be used to hijack Soviet spacecraft. The fears were not unfounded: the shuttle had an impressive manipulator on board, and the cargo compartment easily accommodated even large space satellites. However, the abduction of Soviet ships did not seem to be part of the Americans' plans. And how could such a demarche be explained in the international arena?

However, in the Land of Soviets they began to think about an alternative to the overseas invention. The domestic ship was supposed to serve both military and peaceful purposes. It could be used for scientific works, delivery of goods into orbit and their return to Earth. But the main purpose of "Buran" was the performance of military tasks. He was seen as the main element of the space combat system, designed both to counter possible aggression from the United States, and to deliver counterattacks.

In the 1980s, the Skif and Kaskad combat orbital vehicles were developed. They were largely unified. Their launch into orbit was considered as one of the main tasks of the Energia-Buran program. The combat systems were supposed to destroy ballistic missiles and US military spacecraft with laser or missile weapons. For the destruction of targets on Earth, it was supposed to use the orbital warheads of the R-36orb rocket, which would be placed on board the Buran. The warhead had a thermonuclear charge with a capacity of 5Mt. In total, Buran could take on board up to fifteen such blocks. But there were even more ambitious projects. For example, the option of building a space station was considered, the warheads of which would be the modules of the Buran spacecraft. Each such module carried striking elements in the cargo compartment, and in case of war they were supposed to fall on the head of the enemy. The elements were gliding carriers of nuclear weapons, located on the so-called revolver installations inside the cargo hold. The Buran module could accommodate up to four revolver mounts, each of which carried up to five submunitions. At the time of the first launch of the ship, all of these combat elements were under development.

With all these plans, by the time the ship's first flight, there was no clear understanding of its combat missions. There was no unity among the specialists involved in the project. Among the leaders of the country were both supporters and ardent opponents of the creation of Buran. But the lead developer of Buran, Gleb Lozino-Lozinsky, has always supported the concept of reusable vehicles. The position of Defense Minister Dmitry Ustinov, who saw the shuttles as a threat to the USSR and demanded a worthy response to the American program, played a role in the emergence of Buran.

It was the fear of the "new space weapon" that forced the Soviet leadership to follow the path of overseas competitors. At first, the ship was even conceived not so much as an alternative, but as an exact copy of the shuttle. The USSR intelligence obtained drawings of the American ship back in the mid-1970s, and now the designers had to build their own. But the difficulties that arose forced the developers to look for unique solutions.

So, one of the main problems was the engines. The USSR did not have a power plant equal in performance to the American SSME. Soviet engines turned out to be larger, heavier and had less thrust. But the geographical conditions of the Baikonur cosmodrome required, on the contrary, more thrust, in comparison with the conditions of Cape Canaveral. The fact is that the closer the launch pad is to the equator, the greater the payload can be put into orbit by the same type of launch vehicle. The advantage of the American cosmodrome over Baikonur was estimated at about 15%. All this led to the fact that the design Soviet ship I had to change in the direction of reducing the mass.

In total, 1200 enterprises of the country worked on the creation of Buran, and during its development 230 unique
technologies.

First flight

The ship received its name "Buran" literally before the first - and, as it turned out, the last - launch, which took place on November 15, 1988. Buran was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome and 205 minutes later, having circled the planet twice, it landed there. Only two people in the world could see the takeoff of a Soviet ship with their own eyes - the pilot of the MiG-25 fighter and the flight operator of the cosmodrome: "Buran" flew without a crew, and from the moment of takeoff to touching the ground it was controlled by an onboard computer.

The flight of the ship was a unique event. For the first time in spaceflight, a reusable vehicle was able to independently return to Earth. At the same time, the deviation of the ship from the center line was only three meters. According to eyewitnesses, some dignitaries did not believe in the success of the mission, believing that the ship would crash on landing. Indeed, when the device entered the atmosphere, its speed was 30 thousand km / h, so the Buran had to maneuver to slow down - but in the end the flight went off with a bang.

Soviet specialists had something to be proud of. And although the Americans had much more experience in this area, their shuttles could not land on their own. However, pilots and cosmonauts are far from always ready to entrust their lives to the autopilot, and subsequently, the possibility of manual landing was added to the Buran software.

Peculiarities

Buran was built according to the tailless aerodynamic design and had a delta wing. Like his overseas gatherings, it was quite large: 36.4 m in length, wingspan - 24 m, launch weight - 105 tons. The spacious all-welded cabin could accommodate up to ten people.

One of the most important elements of the Buran design was thermal protection. In some places of the apparatus during takeoff and landing, the temperature could reach 1430 ° C. Carbon-carbon composites, quartz fiber and felt materials were used to protect the ship and crew. The total weight of heat-shielding materials exceeded 7 tons.

A large cargo compartment made it possible to take on board large cargoes, for example, space satellites. To launch such devices into space, Buran could use a huge manipulator, similar to the one on board the shuttle. The total carrying capacity of the Buran was 30 tons.

Two stages participated in the launch of the ship. On the initial stage The flight from Buran undocked four rockets with liquid-propellant engines RD-170, the most powerful liquid-fuel engines ever created. The thrust of the RD-170 was 806.2 tf, and its operating time was 150 s. Each such engine had four nozzles. The second stage of the ship - four liquid oxygen-hydrogen engines RD-0120, installed on the central fuel tank. The operating time of these engines reached 500 s. After the fuel was exhausted, the ship undocked from the huge tank and continued its flight on its own. The shuttle itself can be considered the third stage of the space complex. In general, the Energia launch vehicle was one of the most powerful in the world, and had a very great potential.

Perhaps the main requirement for the Energia-Buran program was maximum reusability. And indeed: the only disposable part of this complex was to be a giant fuel tank. However, unlike the engines of the American shuttles, which gently splashed down in the ocean, the Soviet boosters landed in the steppe near Baikonur, so it was rather problematic to use them again.

Another feature of the Buran was that its main engines were not part of the apparatus itself, but were located on the launch vehicle - or rather, on the fuel tank. In other words, all four RD-0120 engines burned up in the atmosphere, while the shuttle engines returned with it. In the future, Soviet designers wanted to make the RD-0120 reusable, and this would significantly reduce the cost of the Energia-Buran program. In addition, the ship was supposed to receive two built-in jet engines for maneuvers and landing, but by its first flight the device was not equipped with them and was actually a “bare” glider. Like its American counterpart, Buran could only land once - in the event of an error, there was no second chance.

The big plus was that the Soviet concept made it possible to put into orbit not only a ship, but also additional cargo weighing up to 100 tons. The domestic shuttle had some advantages over shuttles. For example, he could take on board up to ten people (against seven crew members at the shuttle) and was able to spend more time in orbit - about 30 days, while the longest shuttle flight was only 17.

Unlike the shuttle, it had a Buran and a crew rescue system. At low altitude, the pilots could eject, and if an unforeseen situation happened above, the ship would separate from the launch vehicle and land in the manner of an airplane.

What is the result?

The fate of Buran was not easy from birth, and the collapse of the USSR only exacerbated the difficulties. By the early 1990s, 16.4 billion Soviet rubles (about $24 billion) had been spent on the Energia-Buran program, despite the fact that its further prospects turned out to be very vague. Therefore, in 1993, the Russian leadership decided to abandon the project. By that time, two spaceships had been built, one more was in production, and the fourth and fifth were just being laid down.

In 2002, Buran, which made the first and only space flight, died when the roof of one of the buildings of the Baikonur Cosmodrome collapsed. The second ship remained in the museum of the cosmodrome and is the property of Kazakhstan. A half-painted third sample could be seen at the exhibition of the MAKS-2011 air show. The fourth and fifth apparatus were no longer completed.

“Speaking about the American shuttle and our Buran, you must first of all understand that these programs were military ones, both of them,” says Pavel Bulat, a specialist in the aerospace field, candidate of physical sciences. - The Buran scheme was more progressive. Separately, the rocket, separately - the payload. talk about some economic efficiency I didn’t have to, but technically, the Buran-Energy complex was much better. There is nothing forced in the fact that Soviet engineers refused to place engines on a ship. We designed a separate rocket with a side-mounted payload. The rocket had specific characteristics, unsurpassed either before or after. She could be saved. Why put an engine on a ship under such conditions? ... This is just an increase in cost and a decrease in weight return. Yes, and organizationally: the rocket was made by RSC Energia, the glider was made by NPO Molniya. On the contrary, for the United States it was a forced decision, only not a technical one, but a political one. Boosters made with a solid rocket motor to boot manufacturers. "Buran", although it was made on the direct orders of Ustinov, "like a shuttle", but was verified from a technical point of view. It actually turned out much better. The program was closed - it's a pity, but, objectively, there was no payload for either the rocket or the aircraft. They prepared for the first launch for a year. Therefore, they would go bankrupt on such launches. To make it clear, the cost of one launch was approximately equal to the cost missile cruiser Glory class.

Of course, Buran adopted many features of its American progenitor. But structurally, the shuttle and Buran were very different. Both ships had both undeniable advantages and objective disadvantages. Despite the progressive concept of Buran, disposable ships were, are and will remain much cheaper ships for the foreseeable future. Therefore, the closure of the Buran project, as well as the rejection of shuttles, seems to be the right decision.

The history of the creation of the shuttle and Buran makes us once again think about how deceptive are profitable, at first glance, promising technologies. Of course, new reusable vehicles will sooner or later see the light, but what kind of ships these will be is another question.

There is another side of the issue. During the creation of Buran, the space industry gained invaluable experience that could be applied in the future to create other reusable spacecraft. The very fact successful development Burana speaks of the highest technological level of the USSR.

"Shuttle" and "Buran"

When you look at photographs of the Buran and Shuttle winged spacecraft, you may get the impression that they are quite identical. At least there shouldn't be any fundamental differences. Despite the external similarity, these two space systems are still fundamentally different.

"Shuttle"

The Shuttle is a reusable transport spacecraft (MTKK). The ship has three liquid-propellant rocket engines (LPRE) powered by hydrogen. The oxidizing agent is liquid oxygen. Enormous amounts of propellant and oxidizer are required to make an entry into near-Earth orbit. Therefore, the fuel tank is the largest element of the Space Shuttle system. The spacecraft is located on this huge tank and is connected to it by a system of pipelines through which fuel and oxidizer are supplied to the Shuttle engines.

And still, three powerful engines of a winged ship are not enough to go into space. Two solid-propellant boosters are attached to the central tank of the system - the most powerful rockets in the history of mankind today. The greatest power is needed precisely at the start in order to move a multi-ton ship and lift it for the first four and a half dozen kilometers. Solid rocket boosters take on 83% of the load.

Another shuttle takes off

At an altitude of 45 km, solid-fuel boosters, having developed all the fuel, are separated from the ship and parachuted into the ocean. Further, up to a height of 113 km, the "shuttle" rises with the help of three rocket engines. After the separation of the tank, the ship flies for another 90 seconds by inertia and then, for a short time, two orbital maneuvering engines running on self-igniting fuel are turned on. And the shuttle goes into working orbit. And the tank enters the atmosphere, where it burns. Parts of it fall into the ocean.

Department of solid propellant boosters

Orbital maneuvering engines are designed, as their name implies, for various maneuvers in space: for changing orbital parameters, for mooring to the ISS or other spacecraft in near-Earth orbit. So the "shuttles" visited the Hubble orbital telescope several times for maintenance.

And, finally, these engines serve to create a braking impulse when returning to Earth.

The orbital stage is made according to the aerodynamic scheme of a tailless monoplane with a low-lying delta wing with a double-swept leading edge and with a vertical tail of the usual scheme. For control in the atmosphere, a two-section rudder on the keel (here an air brake), elevons on the trailing edge of the wing and a balancing flap under the rear fuselage are used. Chassis retractable, tricycle, with a nose wheel.

Length 37.24 m, wingspan 23.79 m, height 17.27 m. The “dry” weight of the device is about 68 tons, take-off - from 85 to 114 tons (depending on the task and payload), landing with a return load on board - 84.26 tons.

The most important feature of the airframe design is its thermal protection.

In the most heat-stressed places (calculated temperature up to 1430º C), a multilayer carbon-carbon composite was used. There are few such places, these are mainly the nose of the fuselage and the leading edge of the wing. The lower surface of the entire apparatus (heated from 650 to 1260º C) is covered with tiles made of a material based on quartz fiber. The top and side surfaces are partially protected by low-temperature insulation tiles - where the temperature is 315-650º C; in other places where the temperature does not exceed 370º C, felt material covered with silicone rubber is used.

The total weight of the thermal protection of all four types is 7164 kg.

The orbital stage has a two-deck cabin for seven astronauts.

The upper deck of the shuttle cabin

In the case of an extended flight program or when performing rescue operations, up to ten people can be on board the shuttle. In the cockpit - flight controls, work and sleeping places, a kitchen, a pantry, a sanitary compartment, an airlock, operations and payload control posts, and other equipment. The total pressurized cabin volume is 75 cubic meters. m, the life support system maintains a pressure of 760 mm Hg in it. Art. and temperature in the range of 18.3 - 26.6º C.

This system is made in an open version, that is, without the use of air and water regeneration. This choice is due to the fact that the duration of the shuttle flights was set at seven days, with the possibility of bringing it up to 30 days with the use of additional funds. With such a small autonomy, the installation of regeneration equipment would mean an unjustified increase in weight, power consumption and complexity of onboard equipment.

The supply of compressed gases is enough to restore the normal atmosphere in the cabin in the event of one complete depressurization or to maintain a pressure of 42.5 mm Hg in it. Art. within 165 minutes with the formation of a small hole in the body shortly after the start.

Cargo compartment with dimensions of 18.3 x 4.6 m and a volume of 339.8 cubic meters. m is equipped with a "three-knee" manipulator with a length of 15.3 m. When the compartment doors are opened, the radiators of the cooling system are rotated together with them into the working position. The reflectivity of the radiator panels is such that they remain cool even when the sun shines on them.

What can the Space Shuttle do and how does it fly?

If we imagine the assembled system flying horizontally, we see the external fuel tank as its centerpiece; an orbiter is docked to it from above, and accelerators are on the sides. The total length of the system is 56.1 m, and the height is 23.34 m. The overall width is determined by the wingspan of the orbital stage, that is, it is 23.79 m. The maximum launch weight is about 2,041,000 kg.

It is impossible to speak so unambiguously about the value of the payload, since it depends on the parameters of the target orbit and on the launch point of the spacecraft. We present three options. The Space Shuttle system is capable of displaying:

29,500 kg when launched eastward from Cape Canaveral (Florida, East Coast) to an orbit with an altitude of 185 km and an inclination of 28º;

11 300 kg at launch from the Space Flight Center. Kennedy to an orbit with a height of 500 km and an inclination of 55º;

14,500 kg when launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base (California, West Coast) into a subpolar orbit at a height of 185 km.

Two landing strips were equipped for shuttles. If the shuttle landed far from the cosmodrome, it returned home on a Boeing 747

Boeing 747 is carrying a shuttle to the spaceport

In total, five shuttles were built (two of them died in accidents) and one prototype.

During the development, it was envisaged that the shuttles would make 24 launches per year, and each of them would make up to 100 flights into space. In practice, they were used much less - by the end of the program in the summer of 2011, 135 launches were made, of which Discovery - 39, Atlantis - 33, Columbia - 28, Endeavor - 25, Challenger - 10 .

The shuttle crew consists of two astronauts - the commander and the pilot. The largest shuttle crew is eight astronauts (Challenger, 1985).

Soviet reaction to the creation of the "Shuttle"

The development of the "shuttle" made a great impression on the leaders of the USSR. It was believed that the Americans were developing an orbital bomber armed with space-to-earth missiles. The sheer size of the shuttle and its ability to return a payload of up to 14.5 tons to Earth was interpreted as a clear threat of theft of Soviet satellites and even Soviet military space stations of the Almaz type, which flew in space under the name Salyut. These estimates were erroneous, since the United States abandoned the idea of a space bomber back in 1962 in connection with successful development atomic submarine fleet and ground-based ballistic missiles.

"Soyuz" could easily fit in the cargo compartment of the "Shuttle"

Soviet experts could not understand why 60 shuttle launches a year were needed - one launch per week! Where were the many space satellites and stations for which the "Shuttle" would be needed to come from? The Soviet people, living within a different economic system, could not even imagine that the leadership of NASA, which was pushing hard for a new space program in government and congress, was driven by the fear of being out of a job. The lunar program was nearing completion and thousands of highly qualified specialists were out of work. And, most importantly, before the respected and very well-paid leaders of NASA, there was a disappointing prospect of parting with habitable offices.

Therefore, it was prepared economic justification about the great financial benefits of reusable transport spacecraft in the event of abandoning disposable rockets. But for the Soviet people it was absolutely incomprehensible that the president and the congress could spend national funds only with great regard for the opinion of their voters. In this connection, the opinion prevailed in the USSR that the Americans were creating a new spacecraft for some future incomprehensible tasks, most likely military ones.

Reusable spacecraft "Buran"

In the Soviet Union, it was originally planned to create an improved copy of the Shuttle - the OS-120 orbital aircraft, weighing 120 tons. (The American shuttle weighed 110 tons when fully loaded). Unlike the Shuttle, it was supposed to equip the Buran with an ejection cabin for two pilots and turbojet engines for landing at the airfield.

The leadership of the armed forces of the USSR insisted on almost complete copying of the "shuttle". By this time, Soviet intelligence had managed to obtain a lot of information on the American spacecraft. But it turned out not to be so simple. Domestic hydrogen-oxygen rocket engines turned out to be larger and heavier than American ones. In addition, they were inferior in power to overseas ones. Therefore, instead of three rocket engines, it was necessary to install four. But on an orbital plane there was simply no room for four sustainer engines.

At the shuttle, 83% of the load at the start was carried by two solid-propellant boosters. The Soviet Union failed to develop such powerful solid-propellant missiles. Missiles of this type were used as ballistic carriers of sea and land-based nuclear charges. But they did not reach the required power very, very much. Therefore, Soviet designers had the only option - to use liquid rockets as boosters. Under the Energia-Buran program, very successful kerosene-oxygen RD-170s were created, which served as an alternative to solid fuel boosters.

The very location of the Baikonur Cosmodrome forced the designers to increase the power of their launch vehicles. It is known that the closer the launch pad is to the equator, the more cargo the same rocket can put into orbit. The American cosmodrome at Cape Canaveral has a 15% advantage over Baikonur! That is, if a rocket launched from Baikonur can lift 100 tons, then when launched from Cape Canaveral, it will put 115 tons into orbit!

Geographical conditions, differences in technology, characteristics of the engines created and a different design approach - had an impact on the appearance of the Buran. Based on all these realities, a new concept and a new orbital ship OK-92, weighing 92 tons. Four oxygen-hydrogen engines were transferred to the central fuel tank and the second stage of the Energia launch vehicle was obtained. Instead of two solid-fuel boosters, it was decided to use four rockets on liquid fuel kerosene-oxygen with four-chamber engines RD-170. Four-chamber - this means with four nozzles. It is extremely difficult to make a large-diameter nozzle. Therefore, designers go to the complication and weighting of the engine by designing it with several smaller nozzles. How many nozzles, so many combustion chambers with a bunch of pipelines for supplying fuel and oxidizer and with all the “chandals”. This bundle is made according to the traditional, "royal" scheme, similar to the "unions" and "easts", became the first step of "Energy".

"Buran" in flight

The Buran cruise ship itself became the third stage of the launch vehicle, like the same Soyuz. The only difference is that the Buran was located on the side of the second stage, and the Soyuz was at the very top of the launch vehicle. Thus, a classic scheme of a three-stage disposable space system was obtained, with the only difference that the orbital ship was reusable.

Reusability was another problem of the Energia-Buran system. The Americans, "shuttles" were designed for 100 flights. For example, orbital maneuvering engines could withstand up to 1000 inclusions. All elements (except the fuel tank) after the prophylaxis were suitable for launching into space.

Solid propellant booster picked up by a special ship

Solid propellant boosters parachuted into the ocean, were picked up by special NASA vessels and delivered to the manufacturer's plant, where they underwent maintenance and were filled with fuel. The Shuttle itself was also thoroughly tested, prevented and repaired.

Minister of Defense Ustinov, in an ultimatum form, demanded that the Energiya-Buran system be as reusable as possible. Therefore, the designers were forced to deal with this problem. Formally, the side boosters were considered reusable, suitable for ten launches. But in fact, it did not come to this for many reasons. Take, for example, the fact that American boosters plopped into the ocean, and Soviet ones fell in the Kazakh steppe, where landing conditions were not as forgiving as warm ocean waters. Yes, liquid rocket-creation more tender. than solid fuel. "Buran" was also designed for 10 flights.

In general, a reusable system did not work out, although the achievements were obvious. The Soviet orbital ship, freed from large main engines, received more powerful engines for maneuvering in orbit. Which, if used as a space "fighter-bomber", gave him great benefits. And plus more turbojet engines for flight and landing in the atmosphere. In addition, a powerful rocket was created with the first stage on kerosene fuel, and the second on hydrogen. It was precisely such a rocket that the USSR lacked to win the lunar race. "Energy" in its characteristics was almost equivalent to the American rocket "Saturn-5" sent to the moon "Apollo-11".

"Buran" has a great external resemblance to the American "Shuttle". Korabl poctroen Po cheme camoleta tipa "bechvoctka» c treugolnym krylom peremennoy ctrelovidnocti, imeet aerodinamicheckie organy upravleniya, rabotayuschie at pocadke pocle vozvrascheniya in plotnye cloi atmocfery - wheel napravleniya and elevony. He was able to make a controlled descent in the atmosphere with a lateral maneuver up to 2000 kilometers.

The length of the Buran is 36.4 meters, the wingspan is about 24 meters, the height of the ship on the chassis is more than 16 meters. The launch weight of the ship is more than 100 tons, of which 14 tons are fuel. In nocovoy otcek vctavlena germetichnaya tselnocvarnaya kabina for ekipazha and bolshey chacti apparatury for obecpecheniya poleta in coctave raketno-kocmicheckogo komplekca, avtonomnogo poleta nA orbite, cpucka and pocadki. Cabin volume - more than 70 cubic meters.

When vozvraschenii in plotnye cloi atmocfery naibolee teplonapryazhennye uchactki poverhnocti korablya rackalyayutcya do graducov 1600, zhe teplo, dohodyaschee nepocredctvenno do metallicheckoy konctruktsii korablya, ne dolzhno prevyshat 150 graducov. Therefore, "Buran" was distinguished by powerful thermal protection, providing normal temperature conditions for the design of the ship during the passage of dense layers of the atmosphere during landing.

The heat-shielding coating of more than 38 thousand tiles is made from special materials: quartz fiber, high-temperature organic fibers, partially angled material Ceramic armor has the ability to accumulate heat without letting it through to the ship's hull. The total weight of this armor was about 9 tons.

The length of the cargo compartment "Buran" is about 18 meters. In its vast cargo compartment could accommodate a payload weighing up to 30 tons. It was possible to place large-sized spacecraft there - large satellites, blocks of orbital stations. The landing weight of the ship is 82 tons.

Buran was equipped with all the necessary systems and equipment for both automatic and manned flight. These are means of navigation and control, and radio engineering and television systems, and automatic devices for regulating the thermal regime, and the life support system of the other crew, and men

Cabin Burana

The main propulsion system, two groups of engines for maneuvering are located at the end of the tail section and in the front of the hull.

November 18, 1988 "Buran" went on his flight into space. It was launched using the Energia launch vehicle.

After entering the near-Earth orbit, Buran made 2 orbits around the Earth (in 205 minutes), then began to descend to Baikonur. The landing was made at a special Yubileiny airfield.

The flight took place in automatic mode, there was no crew on board. The flight in orbit and landing were carried out using an on-board computer and special software. Auto mode The flight was the main difference from the Space Shuttle, in which astronauts make manual landings. Buran's flight entered the Guinness Book of Records as unique (no one had previously landed spacecraft in a fully automatic mode).

Automatic landing of a 100-ton hulk is a very complicated thing. We did not make any "iron", only software landing mode - from the moment of reaching (when descending) a height of 4 km to stopping on the runway. I will try to describe very briefly how this algorithm was made.

First, the theorist writes the algorithm in a high-level language and tests it against test cases. This algorithm, which is written by one person, is "responsible" for some one, relatively small, operation. Then there is a combination into a subsystem, and it is dragged to a modeling stand. In the stand "around" the working, on-board algorithm, there are models - a model of the dynamics of the device, models of executive bodies, sensor systems, etc. They are also written in a high-level language. Thus, the algorithmic subsystem is tested in the “math flight”.

Then the subsystems are brought together and tested again. And then the algorithms are "translated" from the high-level language into the language of the on-board machine (OCVM). To check them, already in the form of an onboard program, there is another modeling stand, which includes an onboard computer. And the same thing is wrapped around her - mathematical models. They are, of course, modified in comparison with the models in a purely mathematical stand. The model is "spinning" in a mainframe computer. Don't forget, this was the 1980s, personal computers were just beginning and were very low-powered. It was the time of mainframes, we had a pair of two EC-1061s. And to connect the on-board machine with the mathematical model in a universal computer, special equipment is needed, it is also needed as part of the stand for various tasks.

We called this stand semi-natural - after all, in it, in addition to any mathematics, there was a real on-board computer. It implemented the mode of operation of on-board programs, which is very close to real time. Long to explain, but for the onboard computer it was indistinguishable from the "real" real time.

Someday I'll get together and write how HIL mode works - for this and other cases. In the meantime, I just want to explain the composition of our department - the team that did all this. It had a complex department that dealt with the sensor and actuator systems involved in our programs. There was an algorithmic department - these actually wrote on-board algorithms and worked them out on a mathematical stand. Our department was engaged in a) translating programs into the onboard computer language, b) creating special equipment for a semi-natural test bench (I worked here), and c) programs for this equipment.

Our department even had its own designers to make documentation for the manufacture of our blocks. And there was also a department involved in the operation of the aforementioned EC-1061 twin.

The output product of the department, and therefore of the entire design bureau within the framework of the “stormy” topic, was a program on magnetic tape (1980s!), Which was taken further to work out.

Next is the stand of the enterprise-developer of the control system. It is clear that the control system aircraft- it's not only BTsVM. This system was made by a much larger enterprise than we are. They were the developers and "owners" of the onboard computer, they stuffed it with a variety of programs that perform the entire range of ship control tasks from pre-launch preparation to post-landing system shutdown. And we, our landing algorithm, in that onboard computer were given only a part of the computer time, in parallel (more precisely, I would say, quasi-parallel) others worked software systems. After all, if we calculate the landing trajectory, this does not mean that we no longer need to stabilize the device, turn on and off all kinds of equipment, maintain thermal conditions, form telemetry, and so on, and so on, and so on ...

However, let's get back to working out the landing mode. After working out in a standard redundant on-board computer as part of the entire set of programs, this set was taken to the stand of the enterprise-developer of the Buran spacecraft. And there was a stand called a full-size stand, in which an entire ship was involved. When the programs were running, he waved the elevons, buzzed with drives, and all that sort of thing. And the signals came from real accelerometers and gyroscopes.

Then I saw enough of all this on the Breeze-M booster, but for now my role was quite modest. I did not travel outside my design bureau ...

So, we passed a full-size stand. Do you think that's it? No.

Next was the flying laboratory. This is the Tu-154, in which the control system is configured so that the aircraft responds to the control actions generated by the on-board computer, as if it were not a Tu-154, but a Buran. Of course, it is possible to quickly "return" to normal mode. Buransky was turned on only for the duration of the experiment.

The crown of the tests were 24 flights of a copy of the Buran, made specifically for this stage. It was called BTS-002, had 4 engines from the same Tu-154 and could take off from the strip itself. He landed in the process of testing, of course, with the engines turned off - after all, "in the state" the spacecraft lands in the planning mode, there are no atmospheric engines on it.

The complexity of this work, or rather, of our software-algorithmic complex, can be illustrated by the following. In one of the flights BTS-002. flew “on the program” until the main landing gear touched the strip. The pilot then took control and lowered the nose strut. Then the program turned on again and led the device to a complete stop.

By the way, this is pretty self-explanatory. While the device is in the air, it has no restrictions on rotation around all three axes. And it rotates, as expected, around the center of mass. Here he touched the strip with the wheels of the main pillars. What's happening? Roll rotation is no longer possible at all. Pitch rotation is no longer around the center of mass, but around an axis passing through the touch points of the wheels, and it is still free. And the rotation along the course is now determined in a complex way by the ratio of the control moment from the rudder and the friction force of the wheels on the strip.

Here is such a difficult mode, so radically different from both the flight and the run along the “three points” lane. Because when the front wheel drops onto the lane, then - as in a joke: no one is spinning anywhere ...

In total, it was planned to build 5 orbital ships. In addition to Buran, Burya was almost ready, and almost half of Baikal. Two more ships that are in the initial stage of production have not received names. The Energia-Buran system was not lucky - it was born at an unfortunate time for it. The economy of the USSR was no longer able to finance expensive space programs. And some kind of fate pursued the astronauts who were preparing for flights on the Buran. Test pilots V. Bukreev and A. Lysenko died in plane crashes in 1977, even before they were transferred to the cosmonaut group. In 1980, test pilot O. Kononenko died. 1988 took the lives of A. Levchenko and A. Shchukin. Already after the flight of Buran, R. Stankevicius, the co-pilot for a manned flight of a winged spacecraft, died in a plane crash. I. Volk was appointed the first pilot.

No luck and "Buran". After the first and only successful flight, the ship was stored in a hangar at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. On May 12, 2012, 2002, the ceiling of the workshop in which Buran and the Energia model were located collapsed. On this sad chord, the existence of a winged spaceship that showed such great promise ended.

After the collapse of the roof

sources

R kill 259"000

Specifications
ENGINE
Model RMZ-640
Volume, cm3 / Cylinders 635 / 2
Power, hp 34
Type 2-stroke
Cylinder diameter × piston stroke, mm 76x70
Fuel system carburetor
Carburetor / Mikuni type / float
Air cooling
Exhaust system Silencer
Issue type n.a.
Intake system Silencer-intake
Inlet type n.d.
Lubrication system Joint
Maximum speed, km/h Not less than 60
CHASSIS
Transmission CVT, forward, reverse, neutral
Brake mechanism Mechanical, disc
ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
Starting system Manual
Ignition Contactless ignition
Electric start No
Reverse Yes
Heated handlebar grips and throttle trigger Option
Headlight Halogen, 55/60
Speedometer / Odometer Yes
CAPACITY
Oil tank capacity, l -
Fuel tank, l 28
SUSPENSION
lane type suspension elliptical spring
Move per. pendants, mm 50
Front suspension damper -
Front shock absorber -
rear type independent suspension, spring-balancer.
Back stroke pendants, mm 50
Rear shock absorber propulsion -
Ski track (between centers), mm -
Caterpillar, L × W × H, mm 2x (2878x380x17.5)
DIMENSIONS
Number of places 2
Snowmobile dimensions, L×W×H, mm 2700±30х910±30х1335±30
Box dimensions, L×W×H, mm 2420x1060x1130
Dry* weight, kg 285
EQUIPMENT
Windshield Yes
Passenger back Yes
Trunk No
Towbar Yes
Warranty, months 36

Description

Buran has long been a true friend for thousands and thousands of Russian snowmobilers. They trust him, knowing for sure: in difficult times, the snowmobile will not let you down.

A short frame and a unique "Buranovskaya" design scheme: "1 ski + 2 tracks" - make it a snow all-terrain vehicle. The snowmobile does not require special riding skills, and is easy to maneuver in forest areas.

The letter "A" denotes a model with a short platform.

The Buran A model is a classic; at the request of the owners, its design remained unchanged.

The snowmobile comes in a new modern design. We have changed the appearance of the hood and the scheme of its attachment: now it leans back, providing easy access to all components and assemblies in the engine compartment. To increase comfort, Buran A was equipped with a new high two-level seat with a removable backrest for the passenger. The material of the hood is injection molded plastic: it will provide resistance to external influences - impacts and will not crack in the cold.

The snowmobile requires a minimum technical support and has good maintainability in the field far from civilization.

Buran A is a simple and reliable snowmobile, like a Kalashnikov assault rifle. A whole army of hunters and fishermen in Russia see no alternative to him.

It might be useful to read: