Tactical and technical data of the vessel of the project. Characteristics of the vessels: classification, device, description Tactical technical data of the vessel

The characteristic of a vessel consists of several criteria or parameters. This applies not only to river and sea watercraft, but also aircraft. Consider the types of classification parameters in more detail.

Linear Criteria

One of the most important characteristics of a ship is its dimensions. The maximum length is measured from the extreme bow to the stern equivalent mark (Lex). Also included in this category are the following sizes:

The length of the object, fixed at the level of the waterline from the stock steering axle to the front part of the stem (L).
The maximum width of the vessel between the outer edges of the frames (BEX).
A similar indicator recorded on the midship frame in the area of the summer load waterline (B).
The indicator of the height of the sides (D). The gauge is measured amidships from the end edge of the upper deck beam to the identical point on the horizontal keel. Also, the parameter can be controlled up to the intersection of the theoretical contours of the side and the upper deck (on ships with a rounded connection).
Draft (d). The criterion is fixed amidships from the waterline to the top of the horizontal keel.

Types of draft

The general characteristics of the vessels also include draft fore (dh) or stern (dk). This criterion is measured by the marking of the recess, which is available at the end of the sides. On the right side of the object, it is applied in Arabic numerals (in decimeters). On the left side put marks in feet in Roman numerals. The height of the signs and the distance between them is one foot, on the starboard side - 1 decimeter.

The resulting drafts from the recess marks show the vertical distances between the waterline and the lower edge of the horizontal keel at the points where the marks are applied. The midship (average) draft is obtained as half the sum of the bow and stern indicators. The difference between the parameters is called the trim of the court. For example, if the stern is more submerged in the water than the bow, such an object has a trim to the stern, and vice versa.

Volume parameters

This characteristic of the ship includes the volume of all rooms oriented to the transportation of cargo in cubic meters (W). Capacity can be calculated according to several criteria:

Transportation of piece cargo in bales. The parameter covers the volume of all cargo compartments between the internal parts of the protruding elements (carlings, frames, protective and other parts).
Cargo capacity in bulk. This includes the total indicator of all free volumes of transport premises. This criterion is always greater than the bale capacity.
The specific characteristic falls on one tonne of the net carrying capacity of the object.
Gross tonnage (measured in register tones). It is designed to calculate fees for the use of canals, pilotage services, plants in docks, and the like.

The general characteristics of the vessel include the capacity of containers. The indicator is measured in DEF (the equivalent of twenty-foot containers that can fit on deck and in the holds). In place of one forty-foot box, two twenty-foot boxes can be installed, and vice versa. On Ro-Ro models, cargo capacity is indicated in thousands of cubic meters. m. For example, the designation Ro / 50 indicates a parameter of 50 thousand cubic meters.

Cargo indicators

The cargo characteristics of the vessel include the following data:

Specific cargo capacity.
Coefficient for correcting design differences in holds.
The number and dimensions of hatches.
Limit parameters of loads on decks.
Carrying capacity and number of special ship facilities.
Technical ventilation devices, including climate control in transport compartments.

Since the specific cargo capacity is closely related to the net indicator, the technical characteristics of ships in this regard can be considered a constant value only taking into account the true carrying capacity parameter. Comparison of these indicators makes it possible to calculate the capabilities of the object when it is loaded different type materials. For bulk tankers, the parameter of their specific carrying capacity is also taken into account.

Peculiarities

The specific load capacity criterion is a general characteristic of ships, showing the number of tons or kilograms that an object can accommodate in terms of one cubic meter.

As a rule, the specific cargo capacity is taken into account at the design stage of the ship and, depending on its purpose, is distributed as follows:

Ro-ro - from 2.5 to 4.0 m 3 / t.
Universal modifications - 1.5 / 1.7 m 3 / t.
Timber carriers (pictured below) - up to 2.2 m 3 / t.
Container versions - 1.2-4.0 m 3 / t.
Tankers - up to 1.4 m 3 / t.
Ore carriers - 0.8-1.0 m 3 / t.

Below are the provisions of the International Convention on the General Characteristics of Ships in terms of measurement (of 1969):

Take into account the final parameters in cubic meters.
Minimize the benefits of shelter-deck and similar versions.
Gross tonnage designation - GT (Gross Tonnage).

According to these rules, gross tonnage GT and NT characterize the total and commercial useful volume, respectively.

Fleet types

Vessels, depending on the purpose and features of operation, are classified into several types:

Fishing fleet - for the extraction of fish and other oceanic or marine life, reloading and delivery of goods to the destination.
Mining vessels - seiners, trawlers, crab, squid, algae mining ships and their analogues.
Processing Fleet - floating facilities focused on receiving, processing and storing seafood, fish and sea animals, simultaneously providing medical and cultural services to crew members. This category also includes refrigerators and mother ships.
Transport vessels - serve the mining and processing fleet. The main feature is the presence in the equipment of specially equipped holds for storing products (receiver-transport, refrigeration and similar ships).
Auxiliary fleet - bulk carriers, cargo-passenger, tankers, tugs, sanitary and fire modifications.
Special vessels - equipment designed for advanced, training, operational reconnaissance, scientific research.
Technical fleet - floating workshops, dredging shells and other port facilities.

Registered tonnage

This conditional indicator is also included in the general characteristics of the vessel. It is measured in register tons, one unit equals 2.83 cubic meters or 100 feet. This parameter is focused on comparing the values of objects and fixing the amount of various port dues, including statistics on the accounting of cargo mass.

Varieties of registered tonnage:

Gross - the volume of all compartments of the vessel in the superstructures and below deck, designed to be equipped with ballast tanks, wheelhouse, auxiliary devices, galley, skylights and other things.
Net register tonnage. This includes the useful volume that serves to transport the main cargo and passengers. Register exchange is confirmed by a special document (measuring certificate).

Coefficient of constructive difference of holds

The value of this technical characteristic of ships varies between 0.6-0.9 units. The lower the criterion, the higher the parking rate when performing cargo operations. The number and dimensions of hatches are one of the defining criteria for carrying out cargo operations. The quality and speed of loading and unloading operations, as well as the degree of comfort during operations, depend on the number of these elements.

The level of convenience and general characteristics of the ships of the Russian Federation largely determines the lucidity coefficient, which is the ratio of the total volume of transport movements to the average cargo capacity of the object.

Decks and their area

Among the permissible loads on the deck, the depth of the hold plays a decisive role, especially on single-deck boats. Transportation of packaged cargo in several tiers and restriction of transportation of high objects depends on this parameter. Usually, most of the materials are transported taking into account the installation height restrictions, in order to prevent crushing and crushing of the lower layers.

In this regard, an intermediate (tween deck) deck is additionally mounted on universal devices, which makes it possible to protect the load on the hold. It also makes it possible to increase the total space for transporting bulky and bulky items. The technical characteristics of Ro-Ro in terms of carrying capacity are one of the most important parameters. To increase the working area, such structures are equipped with removable and intermediate decks.

Equipping with technical means

On Ro-Ro, each job site must be designed to withstand the double load of a 25 tonne DEF. For other types of watercraft, this indicator is calculated within the following limits:

Ore carriers - 18-22 t / m 2.
Universal modifications - on the upper deck up to 2.5 tons, tween deck - 3.5-4.5 tons, cargo hatch covers - 1.5-2.0 tons.
Timber carriers - 4.0-4.5 t / m 2.
Container ships (photo below) - the minimum load of the DEF is 25 tons per six tiers.

In terms of equipment technical equipment for ventilation and microclimate, ships are divided into three categories:

Models with natural forced ventilation. Here, the air flow into the tween decks and holds is supplied through air ducts and deflectors. Such a scheme is ineffective for storing cargo in difficult hydrometeorological conditions, especially on long-distance trips.
Versions with mechanical system. They are equipped with air distributors and electric fans. The performance of the mechanisms depends on the specified air flow exchange rate. For standard universal vessels, this indicator is enough within 5-7 cycles. On ships transporting vegetables, fruits or other perishable goods, this parameter should be at least 15-20 units of air exchange per hour.
Options with air conditioning in the cargo compartments.

Speed and cruising range

Vessel speed is a determining parameter indicating the carrying capacity and period of cargo delivery. The criterion largely depends on the power of the power plant and hull contours. The choice of speed when creating a project is uniquely decided taking into account the capacity, lift and power of the main motor of the craft.

The considered main characteristic of the vessel is determined by several varieties:

Delivery speed. The parameter is fixed according to the measured line when the engine is turned on at maximum power.
Passport (technical) acceleration. This indicator is controlled when the power plant is operating within 90 percent of its capabilities.
Economy speed. This takes into account the minimum fuel consumption required to overcome one unit (mile) of the path. As a rule, the indicator is about 65-70 percent of the technical speed. Such a measurement is appropriate if the characteristics of the vessel under the project include a margin of time for delivery to the destination or lack of fuel due to certain circumstances.
Autonomy and range. This criterion depends on the volume of the fuel tanks, the proportion of consumption is from 40 to 65 percent when operating at maximum load.

Main engine and fuel type

The characteristics of the courts of the Russian Federation according to such parameters are subdivided as follows:

Steamboats with piston-type engines.
Motor ships with diesel engine.
Steam and gas turbines.
Nuclear-powered objects.
Diesel-electric versions and similar analogues.

The latter options are most popular in configurations with low-speed transmission and low specific fuel consumption. Such power plants are as close as possible to the optimal combination of consumption, quality, price and efficiency.

On modern ships, small and lightweight main motors are predominantly mounted, operated using a reduction gear. In terms of their resource and reliability, they are as close as possible to their low-speed counterparts, which are smaller in size and high rate productivity.

In accordance with the positions of the International Aviation Federation, aircraft are divided into several categories:

Class "A" - free balloons.
Version "B" - airships.
Category "C" - seaplanes, helicopters and others aircraft.
"S" - space modifications.

Taking into account the brief characteristics of the vessels, the version under the “C” index is further subdivided into a number of categories (depending on the type and power of the engine), namely:

The first category - 75 and more tons.
The second - 30-75 tons.
Third - 10-30 tons.
Fourth - up to 10 tons.

Classification

Aircraft characteristics combine typical parameters determined by technical and economic indicators. In fact, the units under consideration are a flying unit, which is maintained stably in the atmosphere due to interaction with air reflected from the Earth's surface.

An airplane is an apparatus that is heavier than air, designed to fly with the help of power engines that create thrust. Also involved in this process is a fixed wing, which, when moving in the atmosphere, receives an aerodynamic lifting force. The features by which aircraft are classified are diverse, interconnected and form a single system, which also provides for many market criteria.

Depending on the technical characteristics of the vessel and the type of operation, civil aircraft are divided into the following categories: GA (general aviation) and commercial modifications. Equipment that is regularly used by companies for the transportation of goods and passengers belongs to the commercial direction. The use of airplanes and helicopters for personal or business purposes classifies them as GA.

Recently, there has been an increase in the popularity of general-purpose aircraft. This is due to the fact that the devices are capable of performing tasks that are not typical for commercial units. This includes:

Agricultural work.
Transportation of small loads.
Educational flights.
Patrolling.
Tourist and sports aviation.

At the same time, caller ID significantly saves users' time, which is achieved due to the ability to move without being tied to a schedule. For takeoff and landing of most of these units, small airfields are sufficient. In addition, the consumer does not need to issue and register a ticket, choosing a direct route to the desired destination.

With few exceptions, general purpose aircraft have a takeoff weight of up to 8.5 tons. Depending on the purpose, two categories are distinguished, regardless of operating conditions: multi-purpose and specialized modifications. The first group is focused on performing a wide range of tasks. This possibility is due to the re-equipment and modernization of a certain aircraft with minimal structural changes to solve a specific task. Multi-purpose analogues are divided into variants with ground and water (amphibian) bases. Specialized units are aimed at performing one specific task.

Aerodynamic schemes

The type of aerodynamics means a certain system of bearing parts of an aircraft. These elements include wings (participating in the creation of the main aerodynamic thrust) and additional plumage. It is focused on the stabilization of equipment in the atmosphere and its control.

Below is a brief description of vessel in terms of existing aerodynamic schemes:

"Tailless".
Normal-standard scheme.
"Duck".
Integral and convertible design.
With front or tail horizontal plumage.

Air units, according to some signs of aerodynamics, are classified according to the design parameters of the wing (see the table for information).

Wing configuration and placement	Variety of power elements	Planform
Braced monoplane or biplane	Combined scheme	Parabola
biplane cantilever	Monoblock option
	Caisson system
Parasol	Spar version	Trapeze
strut monoplane	truss type	Triangle with or without influx
One and a half plan		Arrow design
		Rectangle
Monoplane		Animated form
		ring view
		Reverse or variable sweep

In addition, aircraft are classified by fuselage design, landing gear parameters, types power plants and their placement.

The unit is important for civil aviation aircraft depending on the range of their flight:

Nearby trunk units of the main airlines (1-2.5 thousand kilometers).
Medium aircraft (2.5-6.0 thousand km).
Long-distance units (over 6 thousand km).

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1. Introduction

2. Performance characteristics

2.1 Main ship dimensions

2.2 Displacement

2.3 Load capacity

2.4 Capacity

2.5 Vessel speed

3. Seaworthiness

3.1 Buoyancy

3.2 Stability

3.3 Propulsion

3.4 Handling

3.6 Unsinkability

4. Sources

Introduction

A ship is a complex engineering and technical floating structure for the transportation of goods and passengers, water craft, mining, sports, as well as for military purposes.

In the Law of the Sea, a sea vessel is understood as a self-propelled or non-self-propelled floating structure, that is, an object artificially created by man, intended for permanent stay at sea in a floating state. For the recognition of a particular structure as a ship, it does not matter whether it is equipped with its own engine, whether it has a crew, whether it is moving or is predominantly in a stationary floating state. The same definition, except for the sea, applies to inland waters and rivers.

As an engineering structure designed for specific purposes, the ship has operational characteristics and seaworthiness.

Performance characteristics

The main dimensions of the ship

The main dimensions of a vessel are its linear dimensions: length, width, side height and draft.

Diametral plane (DP) - the vertical longitudinal plane of symmetry of the theoretical surface of the ship's hull.

The plane of the midship frame is a vertical transverse plane passing in the middle of the length of the vessel, on the basis of which a theoretical drawing is built.

Under the frame (Shp) is meant the theoretical line on the theoretical drawing, and the practical frame on the structural drawings.

Structural waterline (DWL) - waterline corresponding to the estimated total displacement of ships.

Waterline (VL) - the line of intersection of the theoretical surface of the hull with a horizontal plane.

Aft perpendicular (CP) - the line of intersection of the diametrical plane with a vertical transverse plane passing through the point of intersection of the axis of the stock with the plane of the design waterline; KP on the theoretical drawing coincides with the 20th theoretical frame.

Fore perpendicular (NP) - the line of intersection of the diametrical plane with a vertical transverse plane passing through the extreme bow point of the design waterline.

Main plane - a horizontal plane passing through the lowest point of the theoretical surface of the body without protruding parts.

On the drawings, in the descriptions, etc., the dimensions are given in length, width and height.

The dimensions of the vessels along the length are determined parallel to the main plane.

Longest length L nb - the distance measured in the horizontal plane between the extreme points of the bow and stern ends of the hull without protruding parts.

The length along the design waterline L kvl is the distance measured in the plane of the design waterline between the points of intersection of its fore and aft parts with the diametral plane.

The length between perpendiculars L PP - the distance measured in the plane of the design waterline between the bow and stern perpendiculars.

The length along any waterline L vl is measured as L kvl

The length of the cylindrical insert L c - the length of the ship's hull with a constant section of the frame.

The length of the bow point L n - is measured from the bow perpendicular to the beginning of the cylindrical insert or to the frame of the largest section (for ships without a cylindrical insert).

The length of the stern taper L to - is measured from the end of the cylindrical insert or frame of the largest section - the end of the stern of the waterline or other designated point, such as the stern perpendicular. Dimensions for the width of the vessels are measured parallel to the main and perpendicular to the diametrical planes.

Maximum width In nb - the distance measured between the extreme points of the body without protruding parts.

Width at the midship frame B is the distance measured at the midship frame between the theoretical surfaces of the sides at the level of the design or design waterline.

DWL width In kVL - the largest distance measured between the theoretical surfaces of the sides at the level of the design waterline.

Width along VL V ow is measured as V kvl.

Height dimensions are measured perpendicular to the base plane.

Side height H - vertical distance measured on the midship frame from the horizontal plane passing through the point of intersection of the keel line with the plane of the midship frame, to the side line of the upper deck.

Depth to the main deck Н Г. П - depth of the side to the uppermost solid deck.

Depth to tween deck H TV -- Depth to deck below the main deck. If there are several tween decks, then they are called the second, third, etc. deck, counting from the main deck.

Draft (T) - vertical distance measured in the plane of the midship frame from the main plane of the design or design waterline.

Draft by the bow and draft by the stern T n and T k - are measured on the bow and stern perpendiculars to any waterline.

Average draft T cf - measured from the main plane to the waterline in the middle of the ship's length.

Fore and aft sheer h n and h k - smooth rise of the deck from the midship to the bow and stern; the magnitude of the rise is measured on the bow and stern perpendiculars.

Beam sag h b - the difference in height between the edge and the middle of the deck, measured at the widest point of the deck.

Freeboard F is the vertical distance measured at the side at the middle of the vessel's length from the upper edge of the deck line to the upper edge of the corresponding load line.

If necessary, other dimensions are also indicated, such as, for example, the largest (overall) height of the vessel (height of a fixed point) from the load waterline when empty for passage under bridges. Usually they are limited to indicating the length - the largest and between the perpendiculars, the width at the midship frame, the height of the side and draft. In cases of application of international Conventions - on the safety of life at sea, on the load line, measurement, classification and construction of ships - they are guided by the definitions and dimensions established in these Conventions or Rules.

Displacement

Displacement is one of the main characteristics of a vessel, which indirectly characterizes its size.

Distinguish the following displacement values:

mass or weight and volume,

surface and underwater (for submarines and submarines),

· light displacement, standard, normal, full and maximum.

The total displacement is equal to the sum of the light displacement and the deadweight.

The displacement of a ship is the amount of water displaced by the underwater part of the ship's hull. The mass of this amount of water is equal to the weight of the entire ship, regardless of its size, material and shape. (According to the law of Archimedes)

Ш Mass (weight) displacement is the mass of a vessel afloat, measured in tons, equal to the mass of water displaced by the vessel.

Since the mass of the vessel can vary widely during operation, two concepts are used in practice:

Displacement in full load D, equal to the total mass of the ship's hull, all mechanisms, devices, cargo, crew passengers and ship stores at the maximum allowable draft;

Lightweight displacement D0, equal to the mass of the ship with equipment, permanent spare parts and supplies, with water in boilers, machinery and pipelines, but without cargo, passengers, crew and without fuel and other supplies.

Ш Volumetric displacement - the volume of the underwater part of the vessel below the waterline. With a constant weight displacement, the volumetric displacement varies depending on the density of the water.

That is, the volume of fluid displaced by the body is called volumetric displacement.

The center of gravity of volumetric displacement W is called the center of displacement.

Standard displacement (standard displacement) - the displacement of a fully equipped ship (vessel) with a crew, but without fuel reserves, lubricants and drinking water in tanks.

Normal displacement - Displacement equal to the standard displacement plus half the fuel, lubricants and potable water in the tanks.

Full displacement (loaded displacement, full load displacement, designated displacement) - a displacement equal to the standard displacement plus full reserves of fuel, lubricants, potable water in tanks, cargo.

Displacement reserve - an excess addition to the mass of the vessel, taken during design, to compensate for the possible excess of the mass of its structure during construction.

The largest displacement is a displacement equal to the standard displacement plus the maximum reserves of fuel, lubricants, drinking water in tanks, cargo.

Underwater displacement - the displacement of a submarine (batyscaphe) and other underwater vessels in a submerged position. Exceeds the surface displacement by the mass of water taken when immersed in the main ballast tanks.

Surface displacement - the displacement of a submarine (bathyscaphe) and other underwater vessels in a position on the surface of the water before immersion or after surfacing.

load capacity

Carrying capacity is one of the most important operational characteristics - the mass of cargo for which the ship is designed to carry - the weight of various types of cargo that the ship can carry, provided that the design landing is maintained. Measured in tons. There is net tonnage and deadweight.

Net carrying capacity (Useful carrying capacity) is the total mass of the payload carried by the ship, i.e. the mass of cargo in the holds and the mass of passengers with luggage and fresh water and provisions intended for them, the mass of fish caught, etc., when loading the vessel according to the design draft.

Deadweight (full load capacity) - DWT - deadweight tons. Represents the total mass of the payload carried by the vessel, which is the net carrying capacity, as well as the mass of fuel, water, oil, crew with luggage, provisions and fresh water for the crew when the vessel is loaded to the design draft. If a ship with cargo takes on liquid ballast, then the mass of this ballast is included in the deadweight of the ship. DWT at summer load line draft in sea water is an indicator of the size of a cargo ship and its main operational characteristic.

Carrying capacity should not be confused with carrying capacity, and even more so with the register capacity (registered carrying capacity) of the vessel - these are different parameters measured in different quantities and having different dimensions.

Capacity

In addition to determining the carrying capacity of a ship in terms of weight (now usually in metric tons) and measuring the total weight of a ship with a displacement parameter, a historical tradition has developed to measure the internal volumes of a ship. This parameter is only used for civil ships.

The capacity of the ship is the volumetric characteristic of the ship's premises. Cargo capacity and register capacity should not be confused. For passenger and cargo-passenger ships, there is also the “passenger capacity” parameter.

The parameters of capacity (cargo capacity), carrying capacity (including deadweight) and displacement are not related to each other and are generally independent (although for one class of ships there are coefficients that indirectly relate one parameter to another).

Gross tonnage (BRT) is the total tonnage of all watertight enclosed spaces; thus, it indicates the total internal volume of the vessel, which includes the following components:

The volume of rooms under the measuring deck (the volume of the hold below deck);

The volume of rooms between the measuring and upper decks;

The volume of enclosed spaces located on the upper deck and above it (superstructures);

Amount of space between hatch coamings.

The following enclosed spaces are not included in gross tonnage if they are intended and fit for and used solely for the named purposes:

Premises in which there are power and electric power plants, as well as air intake systems;

Auxiliary machinery spaces that do not serve the main engines (for example, refrigeration plant rooms, distribution substations, elevators, steering gears, pumps, processing machines on fishing vessels, chain boxes, etc.);

A ship that has openings in the upper deck without strong watertight closures (gauge hatches and openings) is called a sheltered ship or a ship with a hinged deck; it has a smaller register capacity because of such holes. Closed interior volumes in open spaces that have strong watertight closures are included in the measurement. Condition for exclusion from measurement open spaces is that they do not serve to accommodate or service crew and passengers. If the upper deck of double or multi-deck ships and bulkheads of superstructures are fitted with strong watertight closures, the spaces between decks below the upper deck and superstructure spaces are included in the gross tonnage. Such vessels are called full-set and have a maximum allowable draft.

Net tonnage (NRT) is the usable volume for accommodating passengers and cargo, i.e. commercial volume. It is formed by subtracting the following components from the gross tonnage:

Premises for the crew and navigators;

navigation facilities;

Premises for skipper stores;

Ballast water tanks;

Engine room (premises power plant).

Deductions from the gross tonnage are made according to certain rules, in absolute terms or as a percentage. The condition for the deduction is that all these spaces are included in gross tonnage first. In order to be able to check whether the tonnage certificate is genuine and belongs to this vessel, it indicates the dimensions of the identity (identification dimensions) of the vessel, which are easy to verify.

The cargo capacity of a ship is the volume of all holds in cubic meters, cubic feet, or in 40 cubic foot "barrels". Speaking about the capacity of holds, the capacity is distinguished by piece (bales) and bulk (grain) cargo. This difference follows from the fact that in one hold, due to floors, frames, stiffeners, bulkheads, etc., bulk cargo can be placed more than piece cargo. The general cargo hold is approximately 92% of the bulk cargo hold. The calculation of the ship's capacity is made by the shipyard; capacity is indicated on the capacity diagram, and it has nothing to do with the official measurement of the ship. Specific cargo capacity is the ratio of the capacity of the holds to the mass of the payload. Since the mass of the payload is determined by the mass of the necessary operating materials, then the specific load capacity is subject to slight fluctuations. General cargo ships have a specific cargo capacity of approximately 1.6 to 1.7 m3/t (or 58 to 61 cubic feet).

Vessel speed

Speed is one of the most important operational characteristics of a vessel and one of the most important tactical and technical characteristics of a vessel, which determines the speed of its movement.

The speed of ships is measured in knots (1 knot is equal to 1.852 km / h), the speed of inland navigation vessels (river, etc.) is measured in kilometers per hour.

There are the following types of vessel speed:

Ш The absolute speed of the ship is the speed measured by the distance traveled by the ship per unit time relative to the ground (immovable object) along the ship's path.

Ø The safe speed of the vessel is the speed at which appropriate and necessary action can be taken to avoid collision.

Ш Cruising (for warships also the combat economic speed of the ship) is a speed that requires a minimum fuel consumption per mile traveled with normal displacement and the operation of ship and combat equipment in a mode that ensures full technical readiness of the main mechanisms for developing full combat speed.

Ш The general speed of the ship is measured by the distance traveled by the ship per unit of time along the general course.

Ш Permissible speed of the vessel - the established maximum speed, limited by the conditions of the combat mission being performed, the situation or the rules of navigation (when trawling, towing, in waves or shallow water, in accordance with the rules of the raid service or a mandatory port order)

Ш The highest speed of the ship (or maximum) develops when the main power plant (Main Power Plant) of the ship is operating in forced mode while ensuring the full combat readiness of the ship. Prolonged forcing of the power plant can lead to its failure and loss of speed, as a result of which the maximum speed is resorted to by the ship in exceptional cases.

Ш The lowest speed of the vessel (or minimum) - the speed at which the vessel can still be kept on course (controlled by the rudder).

Ш The relative speed of the ship is measured by the distance traveled by the ship per unit time relative to the water.

Ш Full combat speed of the vessel (or full speed) is achieved when the power plant is operating in full power mode (without afterburner) with the simultaneous operation of all combat and technical means of the vessel, ensuring the full combat readiness of the vessel.

Ш The economic speed of the vessel (or technical and economic) is the speed achieved when the power plant is operating in the economic mode. At the same time, the task of the lowest fuel consumption per mile traveled is achieved while simultaneously ensuring the established combat readiness and domestic needs of the vessel.

Squadron speed of a ship (or assigned) - the speed of a formation or a group of ships, established in each individual case based on the requirements of the task, the situation in the transition area, navigation and hydrometeorological conditions.

Seaworthiness

ship speed carrying capacity unsinkability

Seaworthiness must be possessed by both civilian ships and warships.

The study of these qualities with the use of mathematical analysis is carried out by a special scientific discipline - the theory of the ship.

If a mathematical solution to the problem is impossible, then they resort to experience in order to find the necessary dependence and verify the conclusions of the theory in practice. Only after a comprehensive study and testing on the experience of all the seaworthiness of the vessel, they begin to create it.

Seaworthiness is studied in two sections: statics and dynamics of the vessel. Statics studies the laws of equilibrium of a floating vessel and the qualities associated with it: buoyancy, stability and unsinkability. Dynamics studies the vessel in motion and considers its qualities such as handling, pitching and propulsion.

Buoyancy

The buoyancy of a vessel is its ability to stay on the water at a certain draft, carrying the intended cargo in accordance with the purpose of the vessel.

Buoyancy reserve

The ability of a ship to stay on the water at a certain draft, while carrying a load, is characterized by a buoyancy margin, which is expressed as a percentage of the volume of watertight compartments above the waterline to the total watertight volume. Any violation of the impermeability leads to a decrease in the buoyancy margin.

The equilibrium equation in this case has the form:

P = r (Vo?Vn) or: P = r V

where P is the weight of the ship, g is the density of the water, V is the submerged volume, and is called the basic buoyancy equation.

It follows from it:

Ш At a constant density r, a change in the load P is accompanied by a proportional change in the immersed volume V until a new equilibrium position is reached. That is, with an increase in the load, the vessel “sits” deeper into the water, with a decrease, it floats higher;

Ш At a constant load P, a change in density r is accompanied by an inversely proportional change in the submerged volume V. Thus, a ship sits deeper in fresh water than in salt water;

III Change in volume V, other things being equal, is accompanied by a change in draft. For example, when ballasting with outboard water or emergency flooding of compartments, it can be assumed that the ship did not take the cargo, but reduced the submerged volume, and the draft increased - the ship sits deeper. When pumping water, the opposite happens.

The physical meaning of the buoyancy margin is the volume of water that the ship can take (say, when compartments are flooded) while still afloat. A buoyancy margin of 50% means that the waterproof volume above the waterline is equal to the volume below it. Vessels are characterized by reserves of 50-60% and more. It is believed that the larger the supply was obtained during construction, the better.

neutral buoyancy

When the volume of water received is exactly equal to the buoyancy margin, buoyancy is considered to be lost - the margin is 0%. Indeed, at this moment the ship is sinking along the main deck and is in an unstable state, when any external influence can cause it to go under water. And as a rule, there is no shortage of influences. In theory, this case is called neutral buoyancy.

negative buoyancy

When receiving a volume of water greater than the buoyancy margin (or any cargo that is larger in weight), it is said that the ship receives negative buoyancy. In this case, it is unable to swim, but can only sink.

Therefore, a mandatory reserve of buoyancy is established for the vessel, which it must have in an intact state for safe navigation. It corresponds to full displacement and is marked with a waterline and/or load line.

Straightness hypothesis

To determine the effect of variable loads on buoyancy, an assumption is used under which it is considered that the acceptance of small (less than 10% of displacement) loads does not change the area of the effective waterline. That is, the change in draft is considered as if the hull is a straight prism. Then the displacement directly depends on the draft.

Based on this, the settlement change factor is determined, usually in t/cm:

where S is the area of the effective waterline, q means the amount of load change in tons required to change the draft by 1 cm. When calculated backwards, it allows you to determine if the buoyancy margin has not gone beyond the permissible limits.

Stability

Stability is the ability of the ship to resist the forces that caused it to tilt, and after the termination of these forces, return to its original position.

Vessel inclinations are possible for various reasons: from the action of oncoming waves, due to asymmetric flooding of compartments during a hole, from the movement of goods, wind pressure, due to the receipt or expenditure of goods, etc.

Stability types:

Ш Distinguish between initial stability, i.e. stability at small angles of heel, at which the edge of the upper deck begins to enter the water (but not more than 15 ° for high-sided surface vessels), and stability at high inclinations.

Ш Depending on the plane of inclination, there are transverse stability with roll and longitudinal stability with trim. Due to the elongation of the shape of the ship's hull, its longitudinal stability is much higher than the transverse one, therefore, for the safety of navigation, it is most important to ensure proper transverse stability.

Ш Depending on the nature of the acting forces, static and dynamic stability are distinguished.

Static stability - considered under the action of static forces, that is, the applied force does not change in magnitude.

Dynamic stability - considered under the action of changing (that is, dynamic) forces, such as wind, sea waves, cargo movement, etc.

Initial stability

If the vessel, under the influence of the external heeling moment of the MKR (for example, wind pressure), rolls at an angle and (the angle between the initial WL0 and the current WL1 waterlines), then, due to a change in the shape of the underwater part of the vessel, the center of magnitude C will move to point C1 (Fig. 2 ). The support force y V will be applied at point C1 and directed perpendicular to the effective waterline WL1. Point M is located at the intersection of the diametrical plane with the line of action of the support forces and is called the transverse metacenter. The ship's weight force P remains at the center of gravity G. Together with the force yV, it forms a pair of forces that prevents the ship from tilting by the heeling moment of the MKR. The moment of this pair of forces is called the restoring moment of the MW. Its value depends on the shoulder l=GK between the forces of weight and support of the tilted vessel:

MB \u003d Pl \u003d Ph sin and,

where h is the elevation of the point M above the CG of the vessel G, called the transverse metacentric height of the vessel.

Fig.2. The action of forces when the ship rolls

It can be seen from the formula that the value of the restoring moment is the greater, the greater h. Therefore, the metacentric height can serve as a measure of stability for a given vessel.

The value h of a given ship at a certain draft depends on the position of the center of gravity of the ship. If the load is positioned so that the ship's center of gravity takes a higher position, then the metacentric height will decrease, and with it the static stability arm and the restoring moment, i.e., the stability of the ship will decrease. With a decrease in the position of the center of gravity, the metacentric height will increase, the stability of the vessel will increase.

The metacentric height can be determined from the expression h = r + zc - zg, where zc is the elevation of the CV over the OL; r -- transverse metacentric radius, i.e., the elevation of the metacenter above the CV; zg -- the elevation of the ship's CG above the main one.

in a built ship, the initial metacentric height is determined empirically - by heeling, i.e., the transverse inclination of the ship by moving a load of a certain weight, called roll-ballast.

Stability at high angles of heel

Fig.3. Diagram of static stability.

As the ship's roll increases, the restoring moment first increases, then decreases, becomes equal to zero, and then not only does not prevent the inclination, but, on the contrary, contributes to it (Fig. 3)

Since the displacement for a given load state is constant, the restoring moment changes only due to a change in the lateral stability arm lst. According to the calculations of transverse stability at large angles of heel, a diagram of static stability is built, which is a graph expressing the dependence of lst on the angle of heel. The static stability diagram is built for the most typical and dangerous cases of ship loading.

Using the diagram, it is possible to determine the heeling angle from a known heeling moment or, conversely, to find the heeling moment from a known heeling angle. The initial metacentric height can be determined from the static stability diagram. For this, a radian equal to 57.3 ° is laid off from the origin of coordinates, and the perpendicular is restored to the intersection with the tangent to the curve of the stability shoulders at the origin. The segment between the horizontal axis and the intersection point on the scale of the diagram will be equal to the initial metacentric height.

Influence of liquid cargoes on stability. If the tank is not filled to the top, i.e., it has a free surface of the liquid, then when tilted, the liquid will overflow in the direction of the list and the ship's center of gravity will shift in the same direction. This will lead to a decrease in the stability arm and, consequently, to a decrease in the restoring moment. Moreover, the wider the tank, in which there is a free surface of the liquid, the more significant will be the decrease in lateral stability. To reduce the influence of the free surface, it is advisable to reduce the width of the tanks and strive to ensure that during operation there is a minimum number of tanks with a free liquid surface

Influence of bulk cargoes on stability. When transporting bulk cargo (grain), a slightly different picture is observed. At the beginning of the inclination, the load does not move. Only when the angle of heel exceeds the angle of repose does the cargo begin to spill. In this case, the spilled cargo will not return to its previous position, but, remaining at the side, will create a residual roll, which, with repeated heeling moments (for example, squalls), can lead to loss of stability and capsizing of the vessel.

To prevent spillage of grain in the holds, suspended longitudinal semi-bulkheads are installed - shifting boards or bags of grain are laid on top of the grain poured in the hold - bagging the cargo.

Effect of a suspended load on stability. If the cargo is in the hold, then when it is lifted, for example, by a crane, there is, as it were, an instantaneous transfer of the cargo to the suspension point. As a result, the ship's CG will shift vertically upward, which will lead to a decrease in the righting moment arm when the ship receives a roll, i.e., to a decrease in stability. In this case, the decrease in stability will be the greater, the greater the mass of the load and the height of its suspension.

Propulsion

The ship's ability to move environment with a given speed at a certain power of the main engines and the corresponding propulsion is called propulsion.

The vessel moves on the border of two media - water and air. Since the density of water is approximately 800 times greater than the density of air, the resistance of water is much greater than air resistance. The water drag force consists of frictional drag, form drag, wave drag, and projecting drag.

Due to the viscosity of water between the hull and the water layers closest to the hull, friction forces arise, to overcome which a part of the power of the main engine is expended. The resultant of these forces is called frictional resistance RT. Friction resistance also depends on speed, on the wetted surface of the ship's hull and on the degree of roughness. The amount of roughness is affected by the quality of the coloring, as well as the fouling of the underwater part of the hull by marine organisms. So that the friction resistance does not increase for this reason, the ship is subjected to periodic docking and cleaning of the underwater part. Friction resistance is determined by calculation.

When a viscous fluid flows around the ship's hull, the hydrodynamic pressures are redistributed along its length. The resultant of these pressures, directed against the movement of the vessel, is called the form resistance RФ. Form resistance depends on the speed of the vessel and on its shape. With a poorly streamlined shape, vortices are formed in the aft part of the vessel, which leads to a decrease in pressure in this area and an increase in the shape drag of the vessel. Wave resistance RВ arises due to the formation of waves in the zones of high and low pressure when the ship is moving. Part of the energy of the main engine is also spent on wave formation. Wave resistance depends on the speed of the vessel, the shape of its hull, as well as on the depth and width of the fairway. The resistance of the protruding parts RHF depends on the friction resistance and on the shape of the protruding parts (rudders, bilge keels, propeller shaft brackets, etc.). Form resistance and wave resistance are combined into residual resistance, which can only be calculated approximately. To accurately determine the magnitude of the residual resistance, ship models are tested in an experimental basin.

Controllability

Handling is the ability of a vessel to be agile and stable on a course. Agility is the ability of the vessel to obey the action of the rudder, and stability on the course is the ability to maintain a given direction of movement. Due to the influence of various disturbing factors (waves, wind) on the movement of the vessel, constant intervention of the helmsman is required to ensure stability on the course. Thus, the qualities that characterize the ship's controllability are contradictory. So, the more agile the ship, i.e., the faster it changes the direction of its movement when the rudder is turned, the less stable it is on the course.

When designing a ship, the optimal value of a particular quality is chosen depending on the purpose of the ship. The main quality of passenger and cargo ships making long-distance voyages is course stability, and that of tugboats is agility.

The ability of the vessel to spontaneously deviate from the course under the influence of external forces is called yaw.

Rice. 4 Scheme of the forces acting on the ship when the rudder is shifted.

To ensure the required controllability, one or more rudders are installed in the stern of the vessel (Fig. 4). If, on a ship moving at a speed v, the rudder is shifted to an angle b, then the pressure of the oncoming water flow will begin to act on one side of the rudder - the resultant of the hydrodynamic forces P, applied at the center of pressure and directed perpendicular to the surface of the rudder. Let us apply mutually balanced forces P1 and P2, equal and parallel to P, at the ship's center of gravity. The forces P and P2 form a pair of forces, the moment of which MVR turns the ship to the right, MVR = Pl, where the arm of the pair is l = GA cosb + a.

We decompose the force P1 into components Q = P1 cosb = P cosb and R = P1 sinb = Psinb. The force Q causes drift, i.e., the movement of the vessel perpendicular to the direction of movement, and the force R reduces its speed.

Fig.5. Elements of the ship's circulation: DC - circulation diameter; DT - tactical circulation diameter; c - drift angle.

Thus, immediately after shifting the rudder on board, the ship's CG will begin to describe a curve in the horizontal plane, gradually turning into a circle called circulation (Fig. 5). The diameter of the circle Dц, which will begin to describe the center of gravity of the vessel after the start of the steady circulation is called the diameter of the circulation. The distance between the DP before the start of the circulation and after the ship has turned 180 ° is the tactical diameter of the circulation DT. A measure of the agility of a vessel is the ratio of the diameter of the circulation to the length of the vessel. The angle between the ship's DP and the tangent to the ship's trajectory during circulation drawn through the ship's center of gravity is called the drift angle c.

When moving on the circulation, the ship rolls on the side opposite the rudder shift, under the action of the centrifugal inertia force applied at the center of gravity of the ship, and the hydrodynamic forces applied to the underwater part of the ship and the rudder. To ensure good controllability at low speeds (in cramped water areas, when mooring), when a conventional steering wheel is ineffective, active control tools are used.

Rolling is called the oscillatory movements that the ship makes near the position of its equilibrium.

Oscillations are called free (on calm water) if they are made by the vessel after the termination of the forces that caused these oscillations (wind squall, jerk of the towline). Due to the presence of resistance forces (air resistance, water friction), free oscillations gradually damp out and stop. Oscillations are called forced if they are performed under the action of periodic perturbing forces (incoming waves).

Rolling is characterized by the following parameters (Fig. 6):

W amplitude and - the largest deviation from the equilibrium position;

Ш span - the sum of two successive amplitudes;

W period T - the time of making two full swings;

W acceleration.

Fig.6. Rolling parameters: u1 and u2 amplitudes; u1+ u2 range.

Rolling complicates the operation of machines, mechanisms and instruments due to the impact of emerging inertia forces, creates additional loads on the strong bonds of the ship's hull, and has a harmful physical effect on people.

Distinguish side, keel and vertical pitching. When rolling, oscillations occur around the longitudinal axis passing through the center of gravity of the ship, while keel - around the transverse. Rolling with a short period and large amplitudes becomes gusty, which is dangerous for mechanisms and is hard to bear by people.

The period of free oscillations of the ship in calm water can be determined by the formula T \u003d c (B / vh), where B is the width of the ship, m; h -- transverse metacentric height, m; c - coefficient equal to 0.78 - 0.81 for cargo ships.

It can be seen from the formula that with an increase in the metacentric height, the pitching period decreases. When designing a vessel, they strive to achieve sufficient stability with moderate rolling smoothness. When sailing in waves, the navigator must know the period of the ship's own oscillations and the period of the wave (the time between two neighboring crests running on the ship). If the period of the ship's natural oscillations is equal to or close to the period of the wave, then a resonance phenomenon occurs, which can lead to the capsizing of the ship.

When pitching, it is possible either to flood the deck, or when the bow or stern is exposed, they hit the water (slamming). In addition, the accelerations that occur during pitching are much greater than when onboard. This circumstance should be taken into account when choosing mechanisms installed in the bow or stern.

Heave is caused by a change in the supporting forces as the wave passes under the vessel. The heave period is equal to the wave period.

To prevent undesirable consequences from the action of rolling, shipbuilders use means that contribute, if not to a complete cessation of rolling, then at least to moderate its scope. This problem is especially acute for passenger ships.

To moderate pitching and flood the deck with water, a number of modern ships make a significant rise in the deck in the bow and stern (sheer), increase the collapse of the bow frames, and design ships with a forecastle and poop. At the same time, water-breaking visors are installed in the bow on the tank.

To moderate the roll, passive uncontrolled or active controlled roll stabilizers are used.

Fig.7. The scheme of action of the zygomatic (lateral) keels.

The passive dampers include bilge keels, which are steel plates installed over 30-50% of the length of the vessel in the chin area along the water flow line (Fig. 7). They are simple in design, reduce the pitching amplitude by 15-20%, but provide significant additional water resistance to the movement of the vessel, reducing the speed by 2-3%.

Passive tanks are tanks installed along the sides of the vessel and interconnected at the bottom by overflow pipes, at the top by an air channel with a disconnect valve that regulates the overflow of water from side to side. It is possible to adjust the cross-section of the air channel in such a way that the liquid during rolling will overflow from side to side with a delay and thereby create a heeling moment that counteracts inclination. These tanks are effective in long-period pitching regimes. In all other cases, they do not moderate, but even increase its amplitude.

In active tanks (Fig. 8), water is pumped by special pumps.

Fig.8. Active sedative tanks.

Currently, active side rudders (Fig. 9) are most often used on passenger and research ships, which are conventional type rudders installed in the widest part of the vessel slightly above the cheekbone in an almost horizontal plane. With the help of electro-hydraulic machines, controlled by signals from sensors that respond to the direction and speed of the ship's inclination, it is possible to change their angle of attack. So, when the ship is tilted to starboard, the angle of attack is set on the rudders in such a way that the lifting forces arising in this case create moments reciprocal to the inclination. The efficiency of the rudders on the move is quite high. In the absence of pitching, the rudders are removed into special niches in the hull so as not to create additional resistance. The disadvantages of the rudders include their low efficiency at low speeds (below 10 - 15 knots) and the complexity of the automatic control system for them.

Fig.9. Active side rudders: a - general view; b - scheme of action; c - forces acting on the side steering wheel.

There are no stabilizers to moderate pitching.

Unsinkability

Unsinkability is the ability of a ship to stay afloat, maintaining a sufficient degree of stability and a certain margin of buoyancy, when one or more compartments are flooded.

The mass of water poured into the hull changes the landing, stability and other seaworthiness of the vessel. The unsinkability of the vessel is ensured by its buoyancy margin: the greater the buoyancy margin, the more outboard water it can take while remaining afloat.

When installing longitudinal watertight bulkheads on a ship, it is necessary to carefully analyze their effect on unsinkability. On the one hand, the presence of these bulkheads can cause an unacceptable roll after the flooding of the compartment, on the other hand, the absence of bulkheads will adversely affect stability due to the large area of the free water surface. Thus, the division of the ship into compartments should be such that in the event of a side hole, the buoyancy of the ship is exhausted before its stability: the ship must sink without capsizing.

To straighten the vessel, which received a roll and trim as a result of a hole, forced counter-flooding of pre-selected compartments with the same magnitude, but with the opposite magnitude of the moments, is carried out. This operation is performed using unsinkability tables - a document with which you can minimum cost time to determine the landing and stability of the vessel after damage, select compartments to be flooded, and evaluate the results of straightening before it is carried out in practice.

The unsinkability of sea vessels is regulated by the Register Rules developed on the basis of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 (SOLAS-74). In accordance with these rules, a ship is considered unsinkable if, after the flooding of any one compartment or several adjacent ones, the number of which is determined depending on the type and size of the ship, as well as the number of people on board (usually one, and for large ships - two compartments ), the ship sinks no deeper than the margin line. In this case, the initial metacentric height of the damaged vessel must be at least 5 cm, and the maximum arm of the static stability diagram must be at least 10 cm, with a minimum length of the positive section of the diagram of 20 °.

Sources

1. http://www.trans-service.org/ - 15/12/2015

2. http://www.midships.ru/ - 15/12/2015

3. en.wikipedia.org - 12/15/2015

4. http://flot.com - 12/15/2015

5. Sizov, V. G. Theory of the ship: Tutorial for universities. Odessa, Phoenix, 2003. - 12/15/2015

6. http://www.seaships.ru - 15/12/2015

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1.1. Ship classification

All vessels are subdivided into transport, fishing, service and support vessels and technical fleet vessels. Cargo ships are divided into two classes - dry cargo and tankers.

Universal dry-cargo vessels are designed for the carriage of general cargo. General cargo is cargo in a package (in boxes, barrels, bags, etc.) or in separate places (machines, metal castings and rolled products, industrial equipment, etc.) (Fig. 1.1).

Rice. 1.1. Universal vessel

Universal vessels are not adapted for the carriage of any particular type of cargo, which does not allow the maximum use of the capabilities of the vessel. For this reason, specialized cargo ships are being built and widely used in world shipping, on which the carrying capacity is better used and the time spent in ports under cargo operations is significantly reduced. They are divided into the following main types: bulk carriers, container carriers, ro-ro carriers, lighter carriers, refrigerated, passenger ships and tankers, etc. All specialized ships have their own individual operational features, which require special additional training from the crew to acquire certain skills for the safe transportation of cargo, and also ensuring the safety of the crew and the ship during the voyage.

Refrigerated ships (Reefers) are ships (Fig. 1.2) with an increased speed, designed to transport perishable goods, mainly food, requiring the maintenance of a certain temperature regime in cargo spaces - holds. The cargo holds are thermally insulated, have special equipment and small hatches, and a refrigeration plant in the ship's refrigeration engine room is used to ensure the temperature regime.

Container ships (Container Ships) are high-speed vessels (Fig. 1.4) designed to transport various cargoes previously packed in special large-capacity containers of standard types. Cargo holds are divided by special guides into cells into which containers are loaded, and some of the containers are placed on the upper deck. Container ships usually do not have a cargo device, and cargo operations are carried out at specially equipped berths - container terminals. Some types of vessels are equipped with a special self-unloading device.

Lighter carriers (Lighter Ships) are ships (Fig. 1.6), where non-self-propelled barges - lighters are used as cargo units, which are loaded onto the ship in the port from the water, and unloaded, respectively, onto the water.

Timber carrier (Timber carrying vessel) - a vessel for the transport of timber cargo (Fig. 1.9), including round timber and sawn timber in bulk, in packages and block packages. When transporting timber for the full loading of the vessel, a significant part of the cargo is taken to the upper deck (caravan). The deck on timber carriers is fenced with a high-strength bulwark and equipped with special devices for attaching the caravan: wooden or metal walls installed along the sides of the vessel, and transverse lashings.

Service auxiliary vessels - vessels (Fig. 1.11) for the logistics of the fleet and services organizing their operation. These include icebreakers, towing, rescue, diving, patrol, pilot boats, bunkering boats, etc.

Tankers (Tankers) are tankers designed for bulk transportation in special cargo spaces - tanks (tanks) of liquid cargo. All cargo operations on tankers are carried out by a special cargo system, which consists of pumps and pipelines laid along the upper deck and in cargo tanks. Depending on the type of cargo carried, tankers are divided into:

1. tankers (Tankers) are tankers designed for bulk transportation in special cargo spaces - tanks (tanks) of liquid cargo, mainly oil products (Fig. 1.12);

2. Gas carriers (Liquefied Gas Tankers) are tankers designed for the transportation of natural and petroleum gases in a liquid state under pressure and (or) at low temperature, in specially designed cargo tanks of various types. Some types of ships have a refrigerated compartment (Fig. 1.13);

3. Chemical tankers are tankers designed for the transportation of liquid chemical cargo, the cargo system and tanks are made of special stainless steel, or covered with special acid-resistant materials (Fig. 1.14).

1.2. Marine hull design

The design of the hull (Fig. 1.15) is determined by the purpose of the vessel and is characterized by the size, shape and material of parts and parts of the hull, their mutual arrangement, and connection methods.

The ship's hull is a complex engineering structure, which is constantly subjected to deformation during operation, especially when sailing in waves. When the wave top passes through the middle of the ship, the hull experiences tension, while the bow and stern ends simultaneously hit the wave crests, the hull experiences compression. There is a deformation of the general bend, as a result of which the vessel may break (Fig. 1.16). The ability of a vessel to resist general bending is called overall longitudinal strength.

External forces, acting directly on the individual elements of the ship's hull, cause their local deformation. Therefore, the ship's hull must also have local strength.

In addition, the ship's hull must be watertight, which is ensured by the outer skin and upper deck plating, which are attached to the beams that form the set of the ship's hull ("skeleton" of the ship).

The set system is determined by the direction of most of the beams and is transverse, longitudinal and combined.

With a transverse framing system, the beams of the main direction will be: in the deck ceilings - beams, in the sides - frames, in the bottom - floras. Such a framing system is used on relatively short vessels (up to 120 meters in length) and is most advantageous on icebreakers and ice-going vessels, as it provides high hull resistance in case of transverse compression of the hull by ice. Midship frame - a frame located in the middle of the estimated length of the vessel.

With a longitudinal framing system in all floors in the middle part of the length of the hull, the beams of the main direction are located along the vessel. The ends of the vessel are recruited according to the transverse dialing system, because. at the extremities, the longitudinal system is not effective. The beams of the main direction in the middle bottom, side and deck ceilings are, respectively, the bottom, side and under-deck longitudinal stiffeners: stringers, carlings, keel. Cross-links are floors, frames and beams.

The use of a longitudinal system in the middle part of the length of the vessel allows for high longitudinal strength. Therefore, this system is used on long ships experiencing a large bending moment.

With a combined framing system, deck and bottom floors in the middle part of the hull length are nailed using a longitudinal framing system, and side ceilings in the middle part and all floors at the ends are nailed using a transverse framing system. This combination of floor stacking systems allows more
it is rational to solve the issues of general longitudinal and local strength of the hull, as well as to ensure good stability of the deck and bottom sheets during their compression.

The combined recruitment system is used on large-capacity dry cargo ships and tankers. The mixed ship framing system is characterized by approximately the same distances between the longitudinal and transverse beams (Fig. 1.17). In the bow and stern parts, the set is fixed on the stem and stern that close the hull.

1.3. The main characteristics of the vessel

Seaworthiness of the ship

Seaworthiness determines the reliability and design excellence of the ship. Seaworthiness includes: buoyancy, stability, unsinkability, controllability, propulsion, seaworthiness of the vessel.

Vessel survivability - the ability of a vessel to maintain its operational and seaworthiness in the event of damage. It is ensured by unsinkability, fire safety, reliability of technical means, preparedness of the crew.

Buoyancy is the ability of a vessel to float in the desired position relative to the surface of the water for a given load.

Seaworthiness is the ability of a ship to maintain basic seaworthiness and the ability to effective use all systems and devices in accordance with the purpose.

The propulsion of a vessel is its ability to move through the water at a given speed under the action of a driving force applied to it.

Maneuvering characteristics of the ship

The controllability of the vessel is characterized by two qualities: agility, and stability on the course.

Agility is the ability of the ship to change direction and move along a curved trajectory preselected by the navigator.

Course stability is the ability of a vessel to maintain a straight line of motion in accordance with a given course.

The controllability of the vessel is provided by special controls, the purpose of which is to create a force (perpendicular to the DP) that causes the vessel to lateral displacement (drift) and turn it around the longitudinal (roll) and transverse (trim) axes.

Controls are divided into main and auxiliary. Fixed assets - rudders, rotary nozzles, azipods - are designed to ensure the controllability of the vessel during its movement. Auxiliary means provide controllability of the vessel at low speeds and when coasting with the main engine inoperative. This group includes thrusters of various types, active rudders.

As a result of the impact of the flowing masses of water and wind on the hull, propeller and rudder, even with calm seas and light winds, the ship does not constantly remain on a given course, but deviates from it. The deviation of the vessel from the course when the rudder is straight is called yaw. The amplitude of the yaw of the vessel in calm weather is small. Therefore, to keep it on course, a slight rudder shift to the right or left is required. With strong wind and waves, the stability of the vessel on the course deteriorates significantly.

The location of the superstructure has a great influence on the yaw rate of the vessel. On those ships where the superstructures are at the stern, the yaw rate increases, since almost always the stern goes "downwind", and the bow - "downwind". If the superstructure is in the bow, then the ship evades "from the wind."

The main maneuvering characteristics of the vessel include:

Circulation elements;

Way and time of vessel braking (inertial properties).

Circulation is the trajectory described by the ship's center of gravity when moving with the rudder deflected at a constant angle (Fig. 1.21). It is customary to divide the circulation into three periods: maneuverable, evolutionary and established.

Maneuvering period - the period during which the rudder is shifted to a certain angle. From the moment the rudder shift begins, the ship begins to drift and list in the direction opposite to the rudder shift, and at the same time begins to turn in the direction of the rudder shift. During this period, the trajectory of the ship's center of gravity from a straight line turns into a curvilinear one, and the speed of the ship decreases.

Evolutionary period - the period starting from the end of the rudder shift and continuing until the end of the drift angle change,

and and and and p" *J

linear and angular speeds. This period is characterized by a further decrease in speed (up to 30 - 50%), a change in the roll to the outer side up to 10 0 and a sharp removal of the stern to the outer side.

The period of steady circulation - the period that begins at the end of the evolutionary one, is characterized by the balance of the forces acting on the ship: propeller stop, hydrodynamic forces on the rudder and hull, centrifugal force. The trajectory of the center of gravity (CG) of the vessel turns into a trajectory of a regular circle or close to it.

Geometrically, the circulation trajectory is characterized by the following elements:

Bo - the diameter of the steady circulation - the distance between the diametrical planes of the vessel on two successive courses that differ by 180 ° in steady motion;

B c - tactical circulation diameter - the distance between the positions of the center plane (DP) of the vessel before the start of the turn and at the moment of changing the course by 180 °;

l 1 - advance - the distance between the positions of the ship's CG before entering the circulation to the circulation point, at which the ship's heading changes by 90 °;

12 - direct displacement - the distance from the initial position of the ship's CG to its position after turning by 90 °, measured along the normal to the initial direction of the ship's movement;

13 - reverse displacement - the largest displacement of the ship's CG as a result of drift in the direction opposite to the rudder side (reverse displacement usually does not exceed the width of the ship B, and on some ships it is completely absent);

T c - the period of circulation - the time of rotation of the vessel by 360 °.

Inertial properties of the vessel. In various situations, it becomes necessary to change the speed of the vessel (anchoring, mooring, divergence, etc.). This happens by changing the operating mode of the main engine or propellers. After that, the ship begins to make uneven movement.

The path and time required to perform a maneuver associated with uneven movement is called the inertial characteristics of the vessel.

The inertial characteristics are determined by time, the distance traveled by the ship during this time, and the speed at fixed intervals and include the following maneuvers:

Movement of the ship by inertia - free braking;

Active braking;

Braking;

Acceleration of the ship to a given speed.

Free braking characterizes the process of reducing the speed of the vessel under the influence of water resistance from the moment the engine stops to the complete stop of the vessel relative to the water. Usually, the free braking time is counted until the loss of control of the vessel.

Active braking is braking by reversing the motor. Initially, the telegraph is set to the "Stop" position, and only after the engine speed drops by 40-50%, the telegraph handle is transferred to the "Full reverse" position. The end of the maneuver is the stop of the vessel relative to the water.

Acceleration of the ship is the process of gradually increasing the speed of movement from zero to a speed corresponding to the given position of the telegraph.

Load line and indentation marks

In order to avoid unacceptable overload of the ship from the end of the XIX - beginning of the XX centuries. on cargo ships, a load line sign is applied, which determines, depending on the size and design of the ship, its navigation area and the time of year, the minimum allowable freeboard.

The load line is applied in accordance with the requirements of the International Convention on Load Lines of 1966. The load line consists of three elements: the deck line, the Plimsol disk and the draft comb.

The load line mark is applied on the right and left sides in the middle part of the vessel. A horizontal stripe applied in the middle of the one depicted on the cargo line
ke disk (Plimsol disk), corresponds to the summer load waterline, i.e. waterline when sailing a ship in the summer in the ocean at a water density of 1.025 t/m. The designation of the organization that assigned the load line is applied above the horizontal line passing through the center of the disk.

Load line provisions apply to every ship to which a minimum freeboard has been assigned.

Freeboard - the distance measured vertically along the side at the middle of the ship's length from the upper edge of the deck line to the upper edge of the corresponding load line.

The freeboard deck is the uppermost continuous, sea- and weather-protected deck which has a permanent means of closing all openings in its exposed portions and below which all openings in the ship's sides are provided with a permanent means of watertight closing.

The freeboard assigned to the ship is fixed by marking on each side of the ship a deck line mark, a load line sign and recess marks indicating the maximum draft to which the ship can be loaded to the maximum under various navigation conditions (Fig. 1.22).

The load line corresponding to the season must not be immersed in water during the entire period from the moment of leaving the port until arrival at the next port. Vessels bearing load lines are issued an International Load Line Certificate for a period not exceeding 5 years.

A "comb" is applied to the nose of the disk - a vertical line with load lines extending from it - horizontal lines, to which the ship can dive under various sailing conditions:

Summer load line - L (Summer);

Winter load line - W (Winter);

Winter load line for the North Atlantic - ZSA (Winter North Atlantic);

Tropical load line - T (Tropic);

Load line for fresh water - P (Fresh);

Tropical brand for fresh water - TP (Tropic Fresh).

Vessels adapted for the carriage of timber are additionally equipped with a special timber load line located aft of the disk. This brand allows some increase in draft when the ship is carrying timber cargo on the open deck.

The recess marks are designed to determine the ship's draft. Divisions are applied on the outer skin of both sides of the vessel in the area of the stem, stern-stem and on the midship frame (Fig. 1.23).

The recess marks are marked with Arabic numerals 10 cm high (the distance between the bases of the numbers is 20 cm) and determine the distance from the current waterline to the lower edge of the horizontal keel.

Prior to 1969, portside indentation marks were marked with Roman numerals, which were 6 inches high. The distance between the bases of the numbers is 1 foot (1 foot = 12 inches = 30.48 cm; 1 inch = 2.54 cm).

Rice. 1.23. Deepening marks: in the left figure, the draft is 12 m 10 cm; on the right - 5 m 75 cm

Stability

Stability - the ability of a ship, brought out of equilibrium by an external influence, to return to it after the termination of this influence. The main characteristic of stability is the restoring moment, which must be sufficient for the ship to withstand the static or dynamic (sudden) action of heeling and trimming moments arising from the displacement of goods, under the influence of wind, waves and other reasons. The heeling (trim) and restoring moments act in opposite directions and are equal in the equilibrium position of the vessel.

There are transverse stability, corresponding to the inclination of the vessel in the transverse plane (roll of the vessel), and longitudinal stability (trim of the vessel).

Metacenter - the center of curvature of the trajectory along which the center of the value C moves in the process of inclining the vessel (Fig. 1.24). If the inclination occurs in the transverse plane (roll), the metacenter is called transverse, or small, while inclination in the longitudinal plane (trim) is called longitudinal, or large. Accordingly, transverse (small) r and longitudinal (large) R metacentric radii are distinguished, representing the radii of curvature of the trajectory C during roll and trim.

Metacentric height (m.v.) - the distance between the metacenter and the center

ship's gravity. M.v. is a measure of the initial stability of the vessel, which determines the restoring moments at small angles of heel or trim. With increasing m.v. the ship's stability is improved. For positive stability of the vessel, it is necessary that the metacenter be above the vessel's CG. If m.v. is negative, i.e. the metacenter is located below the ship's CG, the forces acting on the ship form a heeling rather than restoring moment, and the ship floats with an initial roll (negative stability), which is not allowed.

Unsinkability

Unsinkability is the ability of a ship to maintain buoyancy and stability when one or more compartments are flooded, formed inside the ship's hull by watertight bulkheads, decks and platforms.

The entry of seawater into the hull of the vessel, as a result of its damage or deliberate flooding of the compartments, leads to a change in the characteristics of buoyancy and stability, controllability and propulsion. The redistribution of buoyancy forces along the length of the ship causes additional stresses in the ship's hull, which must retain sufficient strength.

Structurally, unsinkability is ensured by dividing the ship's hull into a number of compartments using watertight bulkheads, decks and platforms. The deck to which the main watertight bulkheads extend is commonly referred to as the bulkhead deck. Structurally, the unsinkability of the ship is also ensured by the installation of drainage systems, measuring pipes, watertight closures, etc. on the ship.

Vessel performance

Operational qualities determine the transport capabilities and economic performance of the vessel. They are determined by its carrying capacity, cargo and passenger capacity, speed, maneuverability, range and autonomy of navigation.

Carrying capacity - the weight of various types of cargo that a ship can carry, provided that the design landing is maintained. There is net tonnage and deadweight.

Net carrying capacity is the total mass of the payload carried by the ship, i.e. the mass of cargo in the holds and the mass of passengers with luggage and fresh water and provisions intended for them, the mass of fish caught, etc., when loading the vessel according to the design draft.

Deadweight (full load capacity) - represents the total mass of the payload carried by the vessel, which is the net carrying capacity, as well as the mass of fuel reserves, boiler water, oil, crew with luggage, provisions and fresh water for the crew when the vessel is loaded according to the design draft. If a ship with cargo takes on liquid ballast, then the mass of this ballast is included in the deadweight of the ship.

With the development of international trade, the scientific and technical process, the need to provide the fleet with new ships has increased. Quantitative, and mainly qualitative changes in the composition of the fleet sets the task of a deeper scientific approach to navigation issues.

At present, with the development of maritime transport, ship speeds have increased to 17-25 knots and displacement to several tens of thousands of tons, in this regard, quantitative and sufficiently accurate data are required to ensure the safety of ships.

AT common task to ensure the safety of navigation, the problem of divergence of ships from each other occupies one of the most important places.

In this regard, the most important is navigational preparation for the passage: completing the ship's collection with sea charts, manuals, manuals, scientific materials for updating the ship's collection, selection of navigational sea charts, route selection, preparation and testing of the technical means of navigation, checking the availability of information about maneuverability of the ship.

The most important task of preparing for the transition is to ensure navigational safety of navigation, prevention of accidents and incidents. Preliminary preparation for the transition is of great practical importance: the analysis shows that a significant part of the accidents was predetermined in advance - by the absence or insufficient effectiveness of such preparation.

This course project on the discipline "Navigation and Pilot" is compiled in accordance with the program of this subject for the specialty "Navigation on the sea and inland waterways" of higher educational institutions of the Ministry of the Navy. It describes one of the passages through which perhaps someday a current student will have to navigate the ship on which he will work as an officer. This transition is worked out by the student for many days in order to acquire and consolidate the most important skills for himself both in preliminary safe laying and in navigation in general, in nautical astronomy, sailing, as well as marine hydrometeorology, without which safe navigation is almost impossible. . If the navigator does not imagine at least one of the above sciences, then such a navigator has no place on a transport ship. This boatmaster will pose a real potential threat to his vessel, the cargo carried on it, other vessels surrounding both coastal and water facilities, not to mention the lives of the crew and other people. The future navigator is obliged to improve his knowledge, including working through one of the navigation transitions, because experience does not come by itself.

INFORMATION ABOUT MOTOR SHIP "Bug"

The main performance characteristics of the vessel

Type and purpose: single-deck, single-rotor dry-cargo vessel with three cargo holds, double bottom and double sides, designed to carry bulk, general cargo, containers and timber. Register class KM LU 2 I A1, navigation area - unlimited.

Operating speed: loaded - 9.0 knots, in ballast - 10.5 knots.

Maximum length, m……………………………………………………………122.4

Length between perpendiculars, m ………………………………………...120

Width, m………………………………………………………………………..16.6

Board height to upper deck, m…………………………………………6.7

Board height to the lower deck, m…………………………………………18.72

Organization that approved the MYFF

Year and place of construction of the lead ship - "Motherland"

Basic indicators

Vessel type - cargo-passenger motor ship

superstructure.

Appointment - transportation of transit passengers and cargoes.

PP class and navigation area - "O" inland waterways

Vessel dimensions overall, m

Length - 95.8

Height from the main line - 16.7

Width - 14.3

Estimated vessel dimensions, m

Length - 90.0

Board height - 3.4

Width - 12.0

Draft at full displacement along ... - 2.5 m

MAP electric motor model - 31-4/12

Power, kW 6/2.5

Speed rpm 1345/368

Capstan anchor-mooring electric

MAP electric motor - 31-4/12

Power, kW 6.25

Rescue and lifeboats

Lifeboat 4 (1-motorboat)

Capacity, people 16 (18)

Davits

aluminum work boat

Dinghy, swivel, manual

Life rafts, w 8

Capacity, pers. ten

Fuel reserves

Main fuel Diesel

Reserve, t 39.4

Oil Diesel

Reserve, t 1.6

Disc ratio 0.65

Number of blades 4

Speed, rpm 450

Material cast steel

Direction of rotation right left

Steering gear

Steering wheel semi-balanced outboard

Number 3

Area, 1.82

Rudder height, m 1.3

Rudder length, m 1.35

Maximum rudder angle, degrees 40

anchor device

Anchor Hall

Number and weight of bow anchors 2x1000

Stern anchor weight, kg 500

Bow anchor chain caliber and length mm¨m19x125, 19x100

Stern anchor 19x75

Electric windlass

The dialing system is mixed: the body is dialed

according to the transverse system,

main and middle decks - along the longitudinal

Location on sp. 8, 42, 72, 92, 128, 142

watertight bulkheads

Thickness of outer skin sheets, mm

Bottoms at the sides 5

The same in the area of \u200b\u200bsides 126 - 140 sp. 6 and 8

Bulwark 3

main engines

Number 3

Power, l. with. 400

Speed, rpm 450

Air pressure start 30 kgf/

Engines

propeller type

Number 3

Diameter, m 1.1

Step, m 1, 09

Passenger capacity, pers. 339

Crew places, pers. 72

Number of places:

in the restaurant on the main deck 58

on middle deck 36

Autonomy, days eight

Promenade deck width, m

on the main 1, 5

on average 2.8

Vessel speed in deep water 25.5 km/h

Completeness coefficient at a draft of 1.38 m

Waterlinea= 0.86

Mid-frame b=0.96

Displacements d=0.74

Automation in accordance with the requirements of the Russian Regulations

Case material steel Art. 3; for critical structures - steel according to GDR standards

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Introduction

A ship is a complex engineering and technical floating structure for the transportation of goods and passengers, water craft, mining, sports, as well as for military purposes.

As an engineering structure designed for specific purposes, the ship has operational characteristics and seaworthiness.

Performance characteristics

The main dimensions of the ship

The main dimensions of a vessel are its linear dimensions: length, width, side height and draft.

Displacement

Displacement is one of the main characteristics of a vessel, which indirectly characterizes its size.

Distinguish the following displacement values:

mass or weight and volume,

surface and underwater (for submarines and submarines),

· light displacement, standard, normal, full and maximum.

The total displacement is equal to the sum of the light displacement and the deadweight.

The displacement of a ship is the amount of water displaced by the underwater part of the ship's hull. The mass of this amount of water is equal to the weight of the entire ship, regardless of its size, material and shape. (According to the law of Archimedes)

Ш Volumetric displacement - the volume of the underwater part of the vessel below the waterline. With a constant weight displacement, the volumetric displacement varies depending on the density of the water.

That is, the volume of fluid displaced by the body is called volumetric displacement.

The center of gravity of volumetric displacement W is called the center of displacement.

Standard displacement (standard displacement) - the displacement of a fully equipped ship (vessel) with a crew, but without fuel reserves, lubricants and drinking water in tanks.

Normal displacement - Displacement equal to the standard displacement plus half the fuel, lubricants and potable water in the tanks.

Full displacement (loaded displacement, full load displacement, designated displacement) - a displacement equal to the standard displacement plus full reserves of fuel, lubricants, potable water in tanks, cargo.

Displacement reserve - an excess addition to the mass of the vessel, taken during design, to compensate for the possible excess of the mass of its structure during construction.

The largest displacement is a displacement equal to the standard displacement plus the maximum reserves of fuel, lubricants, drinking water in tanks, cargo.

Underwater displacement - the displacement of a submarine (batyscaphe) and other underwater vessels in a submerged position. Exceeds the surface displacement by the mass of water taken when immersed in the main ballast tanks.

Surface displacement - the displacement of a submarine (bathyscaphe) and other underwater vessels in a position on the surface of the water before immersion or after surfacing.

load capacity

Carrying capacity should not be confused with carrying capacity, and even more so with the register capacity (registered carrying capacity) of the vessel - these are different parameters measured in different quantities and having different dimensions.

Capacity

Vessel speed

Speed ​​is one of the most important operational characteristics of a vessel and one of the most important tactical and technical characteristics of a vessel, which determines the speed of its movement.

The speed of ships is measured in knots (1 knot is equal to 1.852 km / h), the speed of inland navigation vessels (river, etc.) is measured in kilometers per hour.

There are the following types of vessel speed:

Ш The absolute speed of the ship is the speed measured by the distance traveled by the ship per unit time relative to the ground (immovable object) along the ship's path.

Ø The safe speed of the vessel is the speed at which appropriate and necessary action can be taken to avoid collision.

Ш The general speed of the ship is measured by the distance traveled by the ship per unit of time along the general course.

Ш The lowest speed of the vessel (or minimum) - the speed at which the vessel can still be kept on course (controlled by the rudder).

Ш The relative speed of the ship is measured by the distance traveled by the ship per unit time relative to the water.

Ш Full combat speed of the vessel (or full speed) is achieved when the power plant is operating in full power mode (without afterburner) with the simultaneous operation of all combat and technical means of the vessel, ensuring the full combat readiness of the vessel.

Squadron speed of a ship (or assigned) - the speed of a formation or a group of ships, established in each individual case based on the requirements of the task, the situation in the transition area, navigation and hydrometeorological conditions.

Seaworthiness

ship speed carrying capacity unsinkability

Seaworthiness must be possessed by both civilian ships and warships.

The study of these qualities with the use of mathematical analysis is carried out by a special scientific discipline - the theory of the ship.

Buoyancy

The buoyancy of a vessel is its ability to stay on the water at a certain draft, carrying the intended cargo in accordance with the purpose of the vessel.

Buoyancy reserve

neutral buoyancy

negative buoyancy

Straightness hypothesis

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