System of general scientific methods. Subject perception Targeted systematic systematic perception of the process

Answers to tasks 1–20 are a number, or a sequence of numbers, or a word (phrase). Write your answers in the boxes to the right of the assignment number without spaces, commas, or other additional characters.

Write down the word that is missing in the table.

Characteristics of the methods of cognition

In the given row, find a concept that is generalizing for all the other concepts presented. Write down this word (phrase).

Reform; the revolution; social dynamics; evolution; social regression.

Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, relate to the concept of "social control".

1) remark, 2) sanction, 3) social norm, 4) political ideology, 5) condemnation, 6) material culture.

Find two terms "out of the ordinary", and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

Choose the correct judgments about the activity and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. Activity is associated with the satisfaction of the needs of a person, a social group, society as a whole.

2. Creative activity is inherent in both humans and animals.

3. As a result of labor activity, material and spiritual values are created.

4. The same type of activity can be triggered with different motives of people.

5. The structure of activity presupposes the presence of a goal and means of achieving it.

Establish a correspondence between distinctive features and types of companies: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Artyom and Igor Chaiki wrote a book on corruption. On what grounds can the content of the book be attributed to scientific knowledge? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. All conclusions are theoretically substantiated.

2. The book is difficult for independent study by a non-professional.

4. To confirm the truth of the hypotheses, evidence is given.

5. The book was published by a large publishing house.

6. The entire edition of the book was sold out within one month.

Choose the correct judgments about the securities and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. A share is a certificate of a cash deposit in a bank with the bank's obligation to return this deposit and interest on it after a specified period.

2. A security that certifies ownership of a share in the capital of an enterprise and gives the right to receive a portion of the enterprise's profits is called a share.

3. Securities there are registered and bearer.

4. A bill of exchange grants its owner the right to participate in the management of the firm and receive dividends.

5. The bond gives the owner the right to demand its redemption within the established time frame.

Boris Mikhailovich owns a passenger car and land plot and periodically pays related taxes. Establish a correspondence between the examples and the elements of the tax structure: for each item given in the first column, select the corresponding item from the second column.

The owner of the company draws up a business plan for the development of his enterprise. Which of the following can he use as external sources of business financing? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1.improvement production technologies

2. issue and placement of shares of the enterprise

3.increase in labor productivity

4.income from the sale of the company's products

5. attraction of loans

6.tax deductions

Choose correct judgments about social stratification and write down the numbers under which they are indicated

1. The concept of "social stratification" refers to any changes taking place in society.

2. Social stratification presupposes the division of society into social strata by combining various social positions with approximately the same social status.

3. Sociologists identify the following criteria for social stratification: income, power.

4. Social stratification involves the allocation of social strata depending on the personal qualities of a person.

5. The prestige of a profession as a criterion of social stratification is associated with social attractiveness, respectful attitude in society towards certain professions, positions, and occupations.

In the course of a sociological survey of 25-year-old and 50-year-old citizens of country Z, they were asked the question: "Who read you books in your childhood?" (Any number of answers). The results of the polls (in% of the number of respondents) are shown in the diagram.

Find in the list below the conclusions that can be drawn from the diagram, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. The share of those to whom their parents read books in childhood is higher among 50-year-olds than among 25-year-olds.

2. Grandmother / grandfather read books to equal shares of the respondents in each group in childhood.

3. Among 25-year-olds, those to whom other relatives read books in childhood are less than those to whom kindergarten teachers read books in childhood.

4. Among 50-year-olds to whom grandmother / grandfather read books in childhood, more than those to whom kindergarten teachers read books.

5. The share of those who found it difficult to answer is less among 50-year-olds than among 25-year-olds.

Choose the correct judgments about political (state) regimes and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. The signs of a political regime include the order of distribution of power between various social forces and political organizations expressing their interests.

2. The type of political regime is determined by the state of freedoms and human rights in society, the state of relations with the bureaucracy (bureaucratic apparatus), the dominant type of legitimacy in society.

3. The signs of a political regime include the mechanisms of power, the way of functioning government agencies, procedures for the selection of ruling groups and political leaders.

4. A totalitarian regime is distinguished from a democratic one by the presence of a professional administrative apparatus (bureaucracy).

5. Regime of any type (kind) is characterized by the implementation of the principle of separation of powers.

Establish a correspondence between powers and subjects state power RF exercising these powers: for each item given in the first column, select the corresponding item from the second column.

Citizen A. was elected governor of region Z. He pays great attention to the protection of the rights and freedoms of citizens, the development of civil society institutions. In communication, he is benevolent, open to criticism. What characteristics relate to the type of political leadership in this situation? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1.regional

2.national

3. democratic

6.charismatic

Which of the following do you refer to the constitutional obligations of a citizen of the Russian Federation? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1.choice of profession, type of activity

2.protection of the Fatherland

3.application to public authorities

4.participation in the elections of the President of the Russian Federation

5.conservation of nature and the environment

Choose the correct judgments about procedural law and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. Branches of procedural law directly regulate social relations, in which the main emphasis is on the establishment of the rights and obligations of subjects.

2. The parties to the civil proceedings are the plaintiff and the accused.

3. By general rule the claim is filed in court at the place of residence of the defendant

4. Administrative jurisdiction can be exercised by judges, commissions on cases of unresolved persons and the protection of their rights, internal affairs bodies (police), tax authorities, customs authorities, military commissariats, etc.

5. Criminal proceedings are carried out on the basis of the adversarial nature of the parties to the prosecution and defense.

Establish a correspondence between organizational and legal forms and types legal entities: For each position given in the first column, match the corresponding position from the second column.

Medical University graduate Leonid found a job as a doctor. For conclusion employment contract he brought documents of military registration and work book... What other documents, according to Labor Code RF, Leonid must present to the employer? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1.Certificate of registration of ownership of residential premises

2.insurance certificate of state pension insurance

3. an extract from the financial and personal account

4.tax notice

5.passport or other identity document

6.the diploma of higher education

Read the text below where a number of words are missing. Select from the provided list the words to be inserted in place of the blanks.

“Legal responsibility is a measure of state coercion for the committed __________ (A), associated with the perpetration of certain __________ (B) personal (organizational) or property by the guilty. Legal liability is one of the means of securing __________ (B). It is associated with state coercion, which is understood as __________ (D) to oblige the subject, against his will and desire, to commit certain actions... If there is a fact of an offense, __________ (D) (or body) obliges the person (or organization) to suffer certain adverse consequences. Along with legal responsibility, there are such types of state coercion as preventive measures __________ (E), protection measures. "

Words (phrases) in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word (phrase) can be used only once.

Choose sequentially one word (phrase) after another, mentally filling in each gap. Please note that there are more words (phrases) in the list than you need to fill in the gaps.

List of terms:

1. deprivation

2.the possibility of the state

3.lawful behavior

4.public opinion

5.offense

6. culpability

7.legal behavior

8.social hazard

9.authorized person

Part 2.

First write down the task number (28, 29, etc.), and then the detailed answer to it. Write down the answers clearly and legibly.

Read the text and complete assignments 21-24.

“The ability of the state to be effective largely depends on the principles of organizing the institutions of the legislative, executive and judicial branches.

In the formation of state institutions, these principles are combined in different volumes with the principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial powers. Depending on the procedure for allocating the popular majority and the ownership of the right of legal investiture (the right to form, control and dissolve the government) either to parliament or to the president, the majority principle gives rise to two institutional types of democracy - parliamentary and presidential. The legislative and executive branches of government can be organized according to the principle of either a clear separation, or the absence of a strict separation of powers. The application of this principle of the organization of branches of government depends on the form of government.

The parliamentary form of the political structure does not provide for a clear separation of powers. The popular majority is identified on the basis of unified system voting - election of members of parliament. The formation of the executive branch is carried out indirectly: the head of government and cabinet members are elected by parliamentarians. Consequently, the separation of powers is indirectly carried out after the formation of the government. The leader who receives the support of the majority in parliament becomes the head of the executive branch. The government relies on the support of the parliament, is controlled by it and is dismissed. The pluralism of interests and minority rights is upheld by the legally operating opposition. Great Britain provides a classic example of a parliamentary form of government. The leading role in shaping the country's domestic and foreign policy is played by the prime minister, who has broad powers. He rules through parliament, which determines his influence.

The presidential form of political structure presupposes a strict separation of powers already at the election stage, provides for the presence of an independent electorate in the legislative and executive branches of power, therefore, in countries with such a form of government, there is a double voting system. A presidential republic is based on the direct election by citizens of parliament and the head of the executive branch through national elections. Then the president appoints members of the cabinet (government), directs its activities. He is responsible directly to the people. The dual voting system ensures equal legitimacy of the executive and legislative branches of government.

The United States is a typical example of a presidential model of democracy.

The choice of a parliamentary or presidential form of government determines the structure of the institutions of power, the technology for implementing the power will. Paradoxically, the parliamentary model strengthens executive power, while the presidential republic strengthens the power of parliament. In the parliamentary model, the main functions of parliament are to form, control and dissolve the government. Otherwise, the influence of the legislature is limited. The powers of the government are significant, including legislative initiatives, and the possibilities of its influence are conditioned by the support of the parliamentary majority.

In the presidential form of government, parliament has independent powers of power and rules alongside the president. The presidential model does not require compromise or disagreement between the executive branch and the parliamentary majority. The parliamentary majority can play the role of opposition to the president and thus restrain him. The situation is different in parliamentary republics: since the government is efficient only if a coalition of the parliamentary majority is created, in the parliamentary model the importance of compromises between legislators and the government is great.

In order not to identify the executive and legislative branches of government, in Western countries, restraining principles were created in the form of a system the rule of law, in which political institutions, groups, individuals act within the framework of law, respect and obey it.

Sometimes in the literature this regime is called the regime of legal democracy. However, it seems that the differences between regimes based on majority and legal principles are rather arbitrary, since Western democracies in all their varieties are a creation of law. "

(R. T. Mukhaev)

Show Answer

The indicator of effectiveness is indicated: the ability of the state to be effective largely depends on the principles of organizing the institutions of the legislative, executive and judicial branches.
Two principles are named.

At the heart of modern Western democracies are two principles: the majority principle, according to which power belongs to the majority of the people, and the legal principle, which means the rule of law, equal responsibility of the authorities and citizens before the law.

The elements of the answer can be given in other, similar formulations.

Name two criteria for the formation of two types of democracy. What is the basis of this formation? Explain the role of the principle of separation of powers in this process.

Show Answer

Criteria: "depending on the procedure for separating the popular majority and the ownership of the right of legal investiture (the right to form, control and dissolve the government) either to parliament or to the president."
Reason: the principle of separation of powers.

The elements of the answer can be given in other similar formulations.

There is no answer to the second question in the text, the task is aimed at attracting knowledge.

Firstly, the principle of separation of powers is the basis for the formation of democracy, as it ensures democracy through representatives-parliamentarians, taking into account the opinions and interests of different social groups, obstacles to the usurpation of power. Secondly, the principle of separation of powers distinguishes between parliamentary and presidential democracies, depending on the clarity of the allocation of branches of power.

Formulate three features that distinguish the parliamentary form of the political system from the presidential one. Using knowledge of the constitutional structure of the Russian Federation, illustrate each difference.

Show Answer

Differences between the parliamentary form and the presidential one
Each difference must be illustrated by the provisions of the Constitution of the Russian Federation

c) Parliament forms the Government (in accordance with Articles 111 and 112 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the President of the Russian Federation appoints the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation with the consent of the State Duma, the President, at the suggestion of the Chairman of the Government, approves federal ministers).

Other relevant examples may be given..

What is the meaning of legal democracy? Using the text and social science knowledge, name and illustrate with an example two restraining principles of the rule of law.

1. The meaning of the concept, for example: corpus delicti - a set of statutory features that characterize the committed act as a specific type of crime.

2. One sentence containing information about the signs of a crime, for example: The signs of a crime include social danger, wrongfulness, guilt and punishability.

(Any other proposal can be made that reveals, based on the knowledge of the course, signs of legal liability).

3. One sentence revealing, based on knowledge of the course, the basis that excludes the presence of corpus delicti, for example: The absence of an objective side, that is, the connection between the act and the consequences of the act, excludes the presence of corpus delicti.

(Any other proposal can be made that reveals, based on the knowledge of the course, the features of administrative responsibility).

Show Answer

The correct answer should contain the following the elements:

1) trend (according to the text of the assignment)- humanization of education:

2) another trend with a corresponding characteristic, let's say:

Internationalization of education (integration of national educational systems);

Informatization of education (development distance learning, widespread use of information technology in teaching and digital resources, focus on developing students' skills in searching and analyzing a variety of information).

Other tendencies can be named (not according to the condition of the task), other characteristics are given

You have been instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "Moral norms in the system of social control." Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

Show Answer

One of the options for the disclosure plan for this topic

1. Social norms and sanctions as elements of social control.

2. Types social norms:

a) moral;

b) legal;

c) religious;

d) etiquette, etc.

3. Features of moral norms:

a) focused on values, patterns of behavior;

b) are manifested in customs and traditions;

c) are regulated by public opinion, human conscience;

d) are of a historical nature.

4. The structure of morality:

b) principles;

5. Morality and ethics.

6. The relationship between morality and other social norms.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in denominational, question or mixed forms.

By completing task 29, you can show your knowledge and skills on the content that is more attractive to you. For this purpose, select only ONE of the statements below (29.1-29.5).

Select one of the statements below, reveal its meaning in the form of a mini-essay, indicating, if necessary, different aspects of the problem posed by the author (the topic raised).

When presenting your thoughts on the problem raised (the designated topic), when arguing your point of view, use the knowledge gained in studying the course of social studies, the relevant concepts, as well as the facts of social life and your own life experience. (For factual reasoning, give at least two examples from various sources.)

29.1. Philosophy"Art illuminates and at the same time sanctifies human life ..." (DS Likhachev)

29.2. Economy“In business and sports, too many people are afraid of competition. As a result, people avoid striving for success if it requires hard work, training and self-sacrifice. " (K. Rokne)

29.3. Sociology, social psychology"Our social roles determined by the expectations of other people. " (N. Smelser)

29.4. Political science"Totalitarianism is a form of government in which morality is within the competence of the authorities." (A.N. Kruglov)

29.5. Jurisprudence"Freedom is to depend only on laws." (Voltaire)

Observation - purposeful, systematic perception of objects, in cognition

which the person is interested in is the most developed form

intentional perception. Observation is very active

personality.

A person does not perceive everything that catches his eye, but isolates

the most important and interesting for him. Differentiating objects, the observer

organizes perception in such a way that these objects do not slip out of the field

activities.

The systematic nature of purposeful perception allows us to trace

phenomenon in development, note its qualitative, quantitative, periodic

changes. Active thinking involved in observation helps to isolate the main

from secondary, important - from accidental, helps to more clearly differentiate

items. Perception, attention, thinking and speech are combined when observed in

a single process of mental activity.

The act of observation reveals the extreme stability of an arbitrary

attention. It allows the observer to produce

observation, and, if necessary, repeat it repeatedly.

Observation reveals the inner activity of a person. It is closely related to

the peculiarities of the mind, feelings and will of a person. However, their ratio in observation

will be different depending on the goals of observation, on the qualities of the observer himself.

Therefore, in some cases, observation will be predominantly intellectual

severity, and in others - emotional or volitional aspiration.

When a person studies the development of a phenomenon or notes changes in objects

perception, then there is a need for observation. Observation starts with

statement of the problem. Based on the monitoring tasks that have arisen, a detailed

plan for its implementation. This makes it possible to foresee various aspects of the observed

phenomena, to avoid randomness, spontaneity of perception.

Observation presupposes preliminary training of the observer, the presence of

certain knowledge, skills, possession of the method of work.

Observation is the ability to notice characteristic but subtle features.

objects and phenomena. It is acquired in the process of systematic studies by any

business and therefore is associated with the development of the professional interests of the individual.

The relationship between observation and observation reflects the relationship between mental

processes and personality traits. Cultivating observation as self-reliant

mental activity and as a method of knowing reality is the basis

development of observation as a personality trait.

General characteristics of perception

Perception as action

Perceptions

Basic properties of perception

General characteristics of perception

Perception (perception) is the reflection in the human mind of objects and phenomena in the aggregate of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the sense organs.

In the course of perception, there is an ordering and unification of individual sensations into integral images of things and events. Unlike sensations, which reflect individual properties of the stimulus, perception reflects the object as a whole, in the totality of its properties. Perception is associated with awareness, understanding, comprehension of objects, phenomena, with their assignment to a certain category according to the corresponding signs, grounds. Only by including an object or phenomenon in a certain system, embracing it with an appropriate concept, we can correctly interpret it.

Thus, perception acts as a meaningful (including decision-making), designated (associated with speech) synthesis of various sensations received from integral objects or complex phenomena perceived as a whole. Since perception is a sensory stage of cognition, it is associated with thinking, has a motivational focus, and is accompanied by an emotional response. It is on the basis of perception that the activity of memory, thinking, imagination is possible. The perception of a person is a necessary prerequisite and condition for his life and practical activity.

Perception as action

Perception is a kind of action aimed at examining the perceived object and creating a copy, similarity.

Perception is a complex cognitive activity that includes a whole system of perceptual actions that allow you to detect the object of perception, identify it, measure it, evaluate it (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Perceptual actions

Their composition depends on the degree of comprehension of perception, i.e. from the understanding of what is perceived, and from the nature of the perceptual task facing the person, i.e. on why and for what purpose a person is watching or listening at the moment.

Perceptions

Allocate different kinds perception (Fig. 2).

Intentional perception x It is characterized by the fact that it is based on a consciously set goal. It is associated with the volitional efforts of a person.

It is known that one of the forms of deliberate perception is observation - deliberate, purposeful, systematic, planned and long-term perception of objects and phenomena of reality, people and oneself.

Rice. 2. Classification of perception

The observer must take into account the peculiarities of the individual type of perception (analytical, synthetic, analytical-synthetic, emotional). So, for observers of the synthetic type, generalized reflection and determination of the main meaning of what is happening are characteristic. They don't see the details because they don't attach importance to them.

People of the analytical type tend to isolate, when observing, first of all, details, particulars, but understanding the general meaning of phenomena causes them great difficulties. They often replace the general idea of an object, an event with a thorough analysis of individual actions and details, while failing to highlight the main thing.

People of the emotional type of perception tend to rather express their experiences caused by the observed phenomena, but are unable to isolate its essence. A person of this type of perception, observing an object, first of all notices what affects his emotional sphere, and does not try to understand the features of the object itself.

Unintentional perception- this is a perception in which objects of the surrounding reality are perceived without a specially set task, when the process of perception is not associated with the volitional efforts of a person.

Organized perception(observation) is an organized, purposeful, systematic perception of objects or phenomena of the surrounding world.

Disorganized perception- this is an unintentional perception of the surrounding reality.

Simultaneous perception- one act.

Successive perception- phased, sequential.

Human perception by human(social perception) is an extremely complex phenomenon. Two aspects are usually distinguished in it: cognitive(cognitive) - the ability, by external manifestation, to understand what a person is, to penetrate into the depths of his personality, individuality and emotional- the ability to determine by external behavioral signs the emotional state in which a person is at the moment, the ability to empathize, or empathy.

The perception of a person by a person is essential in witness testimony. Depending on what importance people attach to different personality traits, they relate to each other differently, experience different feelings and, when giving testimony, bring to the fore one or another individual aspect of another person.

Perception of space plays an important role in human interaction with environment, is a necessary condition for orienting a person in it. It is a reflection of objectively existing space and includes the perception of the shape, size and relative position of objects, their relief, distance and direction in which they are located (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Perception of space

The perception of the shape, volume and size of objects is carried out using visual, tactile and kinesthetic analyzers. The perception of form requires the selection of an object from the background, and this, in turn, often requires the selection of a contour, i.e. boundaries of spatial elements of the figure, differing in brightness, color, texture.

The perceived size of objects is determined by the size of their image on the retina and the distance from the observer's eyes. The eye is adapted to a clear vision of variously distant objects using two mechanisms: accommodation (changing the refractive power of the lens by changing its curvature) and convergence (bringing the visual axes on a fixed object).

The perception of depth and distance of objects is carried out in the form of monocular and binocular vision. Monocular vision (with the help of one eye due to a change in the thickness of its lens) makes it possible to correctly assess distances, albeit within very limited limits. The perception of depth and distance of objects is carried out mainly through binocular vision (with the help of two eyes) and the accompanying convergence.

As objects move away from the observer, their image on the retina decreases. An example of linear perspective is the apparent convergence in the distance of parallel railroad rails, etc. Aerial perspective is that the light and color reflected by objects are distorted to a certain extent under the influence of layers of air.

The phenomena of erroneous or distorted perception are called perception illusions. Illusions are observed in all types of perception (visual, auditory, etc.). The nature of illusions is determined not only by subjective reasons, such as orientation, attitude, emotional attitude, etc., but also by physical factors and phenomena.

Perception of time there is a reflection of the duration, the sequence of the phenomena of reality, as well as the tempo and rhythm (Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Perception of time

Reflecting objective reality, the perception of time gives a person the ability to navigate the environment. The perception of time is based on a rhythmic change of excitation and inhibition. Its dynamics is the physiological basis for the perception of time. The perception of the sequence of phenomena is based on their clear segmentation and the objectively existing replacement of some phenomena by others, and is also associated with ideas about the present. Once perceived, the phenomenon remains in memory in the form of an idea about it. If it is then re-perceived, then this perception brings up in our memory the idea of the former, which is perceived as the past.

A number of factors influence the perception of the sequence of events:

perceptual attitude of the subject, expressed in his readiness to perceive events;

objective ordering of events, manifested in the natural organization of stimuli;

the ordering of events by the subject himself using a certain sequence of events that have some signs that are significant for the subject.

Perception of time changes depending on the emotional state. Positive emotions give the illusion of a fast passage of time, negative ones subjectively stretch the time intervals somewhat.

Perception of the pace is a reflection of the speed with which individual stimuli of the process taking place in time replace each other.

Perception of rhythm is a reflection of the uniform alternation of stimuli, their regularity when objects and phenomena of objective reality act on our sense organs. Perception of rhythm is usually accompanied by motor accompaniment. The sense of rhythm is basically motor in nature.

Perception of movement- this is a reflection of the change in position that objects occupy in space (Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. Perception of movement

The main role in the perception of movement is played by the visual and kinesthetic analyzers. The parameters of an object's movement are speed, direction, and acceleration. Observing the movement, first of all, they perceive its character (flexion, extension, repulsion, etc.); shape (straight, curved, circular, etc.); amplitude (full, incomplete); direction (right, left, up, down); speed (fast or slow movement); acceleration (uniform, accelerating, decelerating, intermittent motion).

2. System of general scientific methods

Observation is a purposeful, planned, systematic perception of the process of development of objects and phenomena in the form in which they exist in nature and society in natural conditions. Scientific observation is characterized by: an idea, a pre-developed plan, a definite purpose, the use of special means and measuring instruments, keeping records, etc. Observation does not involve interfering with the process under study. This disadvantage is overcome by experiment.

An experiment is a purposeful study of a phenomenon in specially created and accurately taken into account conditions, when it is possible to monitor the course of its change and actively influence it using various means.In the course of an experiment, various devices, instruments, special devices, and computers are widely used.

The experiment can be repeated, this is a more effective method scientific research, allowing you to study not only what immediately catches your eye, but also what is often hidden in the depths of the phenomenon.

There are two main types of experiment: full-scale and model. If in the first case the subject under study is in natural conditions that change in accordance with a certain program, then in the second case the real object is replaced by a model.

The scientific facts obtained in observation and experiment are subjected to analysis and synthesis. Analysis is the mental division of the subject under study into its constituent elements in order to study its structure and internal connections. Synthesis is the process of mentally connecting parts of an object, dismembered in the course of analysis, establishing the interaction and connections of parts and cognizing this object as a whole. In order to study an airplane, you must first get to know in detail, in detail with each of its systems (fuel, air, hydraulic, oxygen, electrical, etc.) separately, and then comprehend all this as a whole.

Analysis and synthesis are closely related, mutually suppose and complement each other. Otherwise, they lose their cognitive value.

Comparison is one of the universal operations that allows you to distinguish between similar and similarities between different

objects, their properties and relationships by applying a number of abstractions.

Abstraction is the mental isolation of individual, interesting us signs, properties and connections of a particular object in order to cognize them in a "pure" form (in abstraction from other signs, properties and connections). The objective basis of abstraction is the relative independence of the properties, sides and connections of objects, which allows them to be mentally isolated. Generalization is the mental selection of similar (common) features, properties and connections inherent in the class of objects under consideration. As a rule, essential properties, connections are generalized, and on the basis of this there is a transition from the singular to the general, from the less general to the more general.

Abstraction and generalization are often used in conjunction with historical and logical methods. The historical method is a mental reproduction of the emergence, development and death of a specific object in certain conditions and details.This method reveals the sequence of the formation and development of the studied object. The logical method is a generalized reflection of the historical development of an object in its essential, necessary connections and relationships. The logical is the corrected historical, cleansed of accidents, which has absorbed the universal.

Both of these methods are in dialectical unity, since the historical method is inconceivable without a certain logical generalization, and the logical method of research, performed in accordance with the laws that the actual historical process itself gives, is nothing more than the same historical method, only freed from the historical form. and from interfering accidents.

Methods of formalization and modeling play an important role in scientific knowledge. Formalization is a way of mentally connecting objects of different content on the basis of the similarity of their forms. In other words, the form of an object becomes an independent object of research, on the basis of which it is possible to discover the similarity of objects that are different in content. The use of special symbols in the process of formalization makes it possible to concisely and unambiguously fix the acquired knowledge in the form of certain signs. This is especially valuable in the process of using a computer.

Concretization and interpretation are operations opposite to abstraction and formalization, providing a transition from abstract concepts and definitions to concrete objects, from abstract schemes to their objective meaning.

Modeling is a material or mental reproduction of the properties, functions and connections of the object under study on a specially created model for the purpose of studying it. A model is an object that has similarities in certain respects with the original and serves as a means of fixing known and obtaining new information about the subject under study. Modeling is used not only as a means of obtaining new information about the studied subject, but also as a means of testing hypotheses in science.

Conclusion

Currently, scientific knowledge is widely used mathematical methods knowledge of the phenomena of the economy. Thus, mathematical methods of operations research (probability theory, linear and dynamic programming, game theory, queuing etc.) allow you to take into account a large number of different factors in the process of making an optimal decision in economic life.

The system of methods is formed not only by links of subordination, but also by links of coordination between methods. According to the functions performed and the peculiarities of the application (by coordination), all methods are divided into several mutually coordinated groups:

a) historical and logical;

b) empirical and theoretical;

c) full-scale and model;

d) qualitative and quantitative, etc.

Each of these paired groups of methods complements each other, and together they provide a comprehensive, holistic display of an object. This problem can be considered with the help of a diagram.

So, firstly, in the philosophical literature there is no identity of points of view on the essence of methodology, the classification of methods of cognition, the relationship between method and theory, the relationship between the objective and subjective aspects of the method. From our point of view, methodology should be understood as a system of initial, fundamental principles determining the way of approach to the analysis and assessment of phenomena, the nature of the attitude towards them, the nature and direction of cognitive and practical activities. Methodology is the teaching of method. By method we mean a path, a way of cognition and practical transformation of reality.

Bibliography

1. Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. "Philosophy" M.: Prospect, 2000

2. Leshkevich T.G. "Philosophy of Science: Traditions and Innovations" M.: PRIOR, 2001

3. Spirkin A.G. "Fundamentals of Philosophy" M.: Politizdat, 1988

4. "Philosophy" under. ed. Kokhanovsky V.P. Rostov-n / D .: Phoenix, 2000

5 Agofonov V.P., Kazakov D.F., Rachinsky D.D. "Philosophy" M .: Moscow Agricultural Academy, 2000

6 Frolov I.T. "Introduction to Philosophy" Ch-2, M.: Politizdat, 1989

7 Ruzavin G.I. "Methodology of scientific research" M.: UNITI-DANA, 1999.

8. Gonchar L. F. "Philosophy" Moscow 2002.

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Observation, in contrast to other methods and techniques, forms a vivid "living" idea of the world around us. Thanks to this method, it is possible to form one of the most important personality traits - observation.

In visual activity that has sensory bases, observation is one of the key indicative actions... The observation method is aimed at shaping this action.

RequirementsTo observation

1. Purposefulness observation in the visual activity means the perception, first of all, of the content, those features of the object that will serve as the basis for the image, will visually present the artistic image as a result of the visual activity.

2. Emotionality of perception. Without feelings, born of communication with people, art, nature, man-made objective world, there can be no art, there can be no artistic, creative activity. Knowledge that is not supported, not associated with feelings, does not induce active action and, in particular, to manifest oneself in visual activity.

3. Meaningfulness of observation. Visual activity requires a special perception of objects, phenomena, highlighting and awareness of those properties that are to be portrayed (shape, color, proportions, etc.). The child must understand many visible phenomena. For example, why the pines in the forest are tall, slender, mighty, and one pine tree on the shore has grown large and clumsy. Why is the hare's hind legs stronger and longer than the front ones? That is, the external signs of objects are comprehended on the basis of revealing the internal content of the phenomenon, significant connections between external signs and the internal state, the influence of some factors. In this case, the process of cognition is deeper, feelings are more meaningful, a general idea of the phenomenon arises, which allows the child to better navigate when perceiving similar or contrasting phenomena.

4. Activity of children. In observation, it is necessary to ensure the most diverse activities of children: emotional, mental, speech, motor... Only under this condition will the observation process be effective.

5. Repetition of observations it is especially important for children to create various, expressive images. Through repeated observation, children may see one thing in a changing environment(birch tree on a clear sunny day, at sunset, on a windy day; forest in "golden" and late autumn). In the process of repeated observations, one can see a variety of objects of the same type: trucks of different appearance, depending on the specific functional purpose; different residential buildings or buildings with different purposes (school, kindergarten, residential building, palace for children, etc.). Thus, repeated targeted observations significantly enrich children's ideas. The last observation should be as close as possible to the imaging process., since, due to the dominant involuntary nature of all mental processes in preschoolers, it is impossible to retain for a long time "fresh" vivid impressions necessary for the image.

6. Taking into account the age capabilities of children and image tasks when selecting the volume of representations formed in the course of observation. This requirement is realized both in the content and in the method of observation with children.

The methodology for organizing and conducting observation with children involves:

The need to choose a place and time in accordance with the tasks of observation,

A variety of issues that activate the cognitive activity of children,

· Enrichment of observation with other techniques: story, explanation, artistic word, game moments, elements of examination, etc.

Example. It is possible to organize observation of spring birches on a bright sunny day. In a conversation, draw the attention of preschoolers to color and flavor: why does the crown of birches seem pink? How do pinks and browns work together against a blue sky background?

Advise the guys to think about how to portray this.

One more observation can be made in order to sharpen the attention of children on the changes in the same object (spring birches) in the evening or on a cold cloudy day. It is advisable to offer preschoolers a more difficult task: to notice as many changes as possible in this picture of nature.

If the children are to draw a spring birch grove on a cloudy day, they should observe how the outline of the crown changes (there is no such clarity and delicacy), how its color, the colors of trees, sky, earth, etc. change. In essence, such activity (observation) can be organized as partly exploratory. The results of these observations will be visible in the drawings when children independently choose the paper color, material, color, composition, etc. Individual observation tasks can be completely independent, research in nature.

Thus, the observation method can be presented, depending on the nature of the cognitive activity of children, as reproductive, heuristic, or research.

There are some peculiarities of observations carried out with children of different age groups. The content of special observations carried out before physical activity classes should be closely related to the content and tasks of the upcoming classes.

Children junior groups accept a topic if it is interesting and accessible to them

With kids, they observe phenomena, objects in a natural environment for them, simple in shape and bright in color. As a rule, 1-2 features are isolated (for example, color and rhythm). Observations are short-term, children are not given a setting for the subsequent image, i.e. the teacher does not say why they are looking, since the children do not hold on to this task. The teacher himself determines the shape, color. Children repeat. It is very important that perception takes place in action, in movement, in play. Conversation-conversation should be relaxed, take place in a joyful, playful atmosphere.

Example: theme for the image "Dandelions in the meadow." Children of the first junior group can draw dandelions with rhythmic yellow strokes on green paper ("clearing").

Dandelion sightings can be daily and fun for kids. The teacher brings the kids to the lawn, where many dandelions have grown. The kids run around the whole clearing (this is important for the sense of space, for the subsequent meaningful perception and development of a green sheet of paper as a space of a lawn, a meadow on which dandelions will "grow"). Children look and wonder, it turns out that dandelions grow everywhere. It is useful to show where they grow with a rhythmic movement of the hand, emphasizing the rhythm of the arrangement with the words: “And here, and here, and here. Another dandelion, another ... "This gesture and word will be useful to the educator when stimulating rhythmic pictorial actions (rhythmic application of smears-spots on a sheet of paper).

You should pay attention to the color of dandelions and herbs, the educator admires this beauty, showing an example of an emotional relationship to nature. Of course, the kids will certainly touch the dandelions and sniff. You can play dandelions: cover the heads with your hands, and then “bloom” under the sun, “bask” in the sun, etc. Poems and songs about this spring miracle will come in handy.

In the 2nd junior group, children can already draw dandelions, depicting the heads with a rounded spot or outlining and painting over a contour, someone already conveys an elementary structure - a stalk. Therefore, an element of the survey can be included in the observation: with a gesture - with a finger, outline the heads of dandelions, small and large. You can pay attention to the dense and juicy grass, where dandelions did not grow. The rest of the observation will change little, but the drawings will be done in a different way. Kids on their own initiative can complement the image.

With kids middle group observation may be longer. It is necessary to highlight several features: color, shape, structure, location in space. Children of this age are ready for answers to questions (reproductive and search), elementary comparisons and generalizations. It is possible to organize repeated observation with the complication of the content and methods of cognition.

Example (the same). The attention of children can be drawn to the structure of dandelions. They independently determine the rounded shape of the head, a thin stalk. With the help of leading questions the teacher examines the leaves. You can draw the attention of preschoolers to the variety of dandelions: large and small, with straight and bent stems, just blossomed and have already turned into white balls, flown around, etc. It is important to consider insects that have taken a liking to flowers and lawns, etc. Children's drawings acquire personality traits due to composition, expressive additions, variety in the image of dandelions. At the end of the observation, children can be told about the upcoming drawing, advising them to capture the beauty that will soon pass, "fly around", and they will have to wait for such a miracle until next spring.

Older children are already capable of accepting the observation goal associated with the subsequent image (it is advisable to report the goal after the emotional perception of the beauty of nature by preschoolers). It is necessary to give the child the opportunity to see sunny spring flowers at once, in a combination of colors. It is advisable to help children "throw out" their feelings, express themselves. If this is difficult for children, the teacher needs to show his attitude, attract children to empathy, encourage them to search for words, images, comparisons to express feelings. After that, propose to draw a spring landscape, flowers in the meadow, so that people can admire this miracle at any time of the year.

Older children are able to more consciously and actively perceive the phenomenon, notice hidden internal connections, dependencies, individual signs behind external changes, and express this in words. Considering the more complex tasks of the image, with older preschoolers it is possible to consider objects (their combinations) near and from a distance, compare in size, establish a relative position in space: closer to us, further, to the right, to the left, etc. In observations with older preschoolers, you can to form a pictorial representation. To do this, highlighting some expressive features of objects, you can invite the children to think about how it can be drawn, what material is better to use, what color of paper is more suitable. At the time of observation, it is advisable to plan the future drawing. For example, the theme "Dandelions in the Meadow" or "Spring Blooming Meadow". Children come up with a composition of the picture, highlight the main thing in it. Accordingly, one has to think about how wide the strip of green meadow, the strip of sky will be. Preschoolers ponder how, with what colors and materials it is better to paint the spring sky, a green meadow. Maybe watercolors on a damp background, maybe colored wax crayons, etc.

It is recommended to carry out repeated observations (group and individual). And individual observations are subject to individual intentions, which the teacher forms in children in advance. Knowing, let in general outline, the ideas of children, the teacher directs them to individual or joint observation with parents. In older groups, observation is closely related to the action of conception (conception is built on the basis of observations).

21. The essence and specifics of the organization of the survey in different types productive activity.

Survey method was developed by researchers on the problem of sensory education in preschool children.

Survey - purposeful analytical-synthetic perception of an object by a tactile-motor and visual way.

You can examine toys, household items (house, bridge), nature (trees, bushes, flowers, animals). When depicting a person, you can examine a toy-doll, you can examine the figures of children (for a walk, gymnastics), etc.

Inspection is the purposeful examination of an object that needs to be portrayed.

The survey is used in case of difficulties in depicting individual objects, but survey skills must also be taught, therefore, the survey can act simultaneously as:

Teaching method;

Learning task.

The meaning of the survey in the formation of a visual representation ( those. representations of the future image and methods of its creation).

After all, the order of the examination coincides with the sequence of the image, and the examining gestures not only help to isolate the features of the form, but by the nature of the movement they coincide with the formative pictorial movements (how we outline a round shape along the contour - so we draw, how we embrace, feel with our fingers a volumetric shape - so we sculpt ).

During the examination, the following occurs:

Isolation and explanation of external signs,

· Comparison of items on these grounds,

Establishing and explaining similarities

Generalization

This allows you to form a generalized idea of a group of similar objects. On the basis of generalized ideas, a generalized way of depicting objects of the same type is also formed.

Survey structure

Survey can be divided into three stages of different nature.

First step- integral emotional perception of an object through some expressive sign.

For example, a fluffy, soft kitten (toy), an important proud goose (papier-mâché toy); ripe, delicious, beautiful apple. Or: "Here is a chanterelle running, a red-haired sister, wagging her tail, looking in all directions ..." (toy).

Or children are looking at trucks. One may ask: what kind of car is this? How did you guess? This technique allows you to isolate the most characteristic feature subject and associate it with function, purpose.

The meaning of the first stage of the examination of the depicted object is that preschoolers need to evoke a feeling of surprise, admiration, admiration, curiosity, etc. depending on the nature of the subject.

Second phase - analytical perception of the subject, i.e. sequential selection of pictorial features, parts and properties of an object.

The order of this selection and definition corresponds to the sequence of the image.

Therefore, the approximate sequence of analysis is as follows:

1. Allocate and name the largest part of the subject and its purpose.

2. Determine the shape of this part. If possible, find out the dependence of the form on the function (purpose), living conditions (why the fish is oval, why trucks rectangular, long body).

3. Determine the position of this part in space (why this pine has a gnarled, even forked trunk, while others have a slender one).

4. Then select another (rather large) part and find out the position, shape, its size in relation to the main one.

5. Allocate a color if its image is involuntary, but is performed in accordance with nature.

Third stage - holistic emotional perception of the subject, as if uniting the emerging representation into a holistic image.

In the structure of the survey (analysis), it is often used examining gesture of the teacher and children, which helps to isolate the form, its features. Circling with a finger along the contour of an object organizes visual perception, the gaze first accompanies, then directs the movement of the finger. Besides, the drawing of the examining gesture coincides with the shaping movement produced in the image.

The older the children are, the more the word can be used in controlling their actions: "Put your arms around, touch your fingers like this (shows a gesture)."

The examining gesture is accompanied by a word that determines the direction, the nature of the movement, and ultimately determines the form... For example, "the finger" runs "along the ring, does not stop anywhere - a round ring. That's how it rolled, it doesn't stop. " Or: "The neck of the goose is long, the breast is round."

The examining gesture changes in different types of visual activity.

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