The history of the concept of marketing. Marketing as an academic discipline

The problem of overcoming contradictions in the professional vocabulary of the business community exists all over the world. In Russia, it is more acute, since basically all the terminology is borrowed, so let's focus on the main categories.

The English word “market” has spawned quite a few other supply or trading words that have taken root in Russia. For example, a "marketer" - a supplier of products for the army or a "supermarket" - a retail outlet with a wide range of products.

On the one hand, marketing studies the process, and more specifically, commodity-money relations and the factors influencing them, on the other hand, it has a direct impact (i.e., manages) on the time or speed of the process. To this end, various mechanisms are being developed to stimulate sales, or “promotion”, of a product (service), which is included in the mandatory category of marketing - promotion.

Moreover, both goods and money are some conditional units of the process, or units of value. The act of exchanging values ​​is called sale. In ancient times, one product was exchanged for another (for example, animal skins for pottery). In our time, the value that a product has for us, we exchange for another value in cash or in some equivalents of money (bills, coupons). This is how the market for this product is formed. The value that a qualified specialist has is exchanged for wages; the labor market is formed.

Leading marketing specialist Michael J. Baker, after conducting an in-depth study and taking into account the content analysis of the definitions of marketing, scientists from Henley Management College, concludes the following: exchange". Since the 90s “relationship marketing,” or customer-centric marketing, has become the dominant theme, despite late recognition in the US.

Unfortunately, in educational practice still there is a narrowed concept of marketing - as a "modern market" or, in extreme cases, "market science". This complicates the systematization of knowledge among advertising students, who must, from different angles, consider marketing and its tools as an applied discipline in their activities, own the apparatus of marketing research in relation to both the advertising market itself and “ advertising products”, and to other goods (services), and at the same time manage (i.e. make decisions, plan, organize and control) these same “marketing tools” or “technologies”, i.e. manage the processes occurring in the market .

If we talk about common ideas that exist in society, or about a single semantic field, it is necessary to turn to traditional reference literature, which was published not even in hundreds of thousands, but in millions of copies. So, the Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary (1979, 5 million copies) defines marketing as one of the systems for managing and organizing activities (large corporations) for the development of new products, the production and marketing of goods or the provision of services in order to obtain monopoly profits based on integrated accounting processes taking place in the market. An amazingly accurate definition, if you remove the ideological terms “monopoly profit” and “large corporations”. The functions of marketing include the study of demand, pricing, advertising, sales promotion, product range planning. In fact, the SES describes the same “4P” method (proposed in the 60s by E. D. McCarthy in the work “Fundamentals of Marketing” and developed in the “marketing mix” by N. Borden), which has grown today to “6 ~ 7P” (product, price, promotion, place, people, pakage, etc.).

The Russian Language Dictionary of Foreign Words (1981, more than 1 million copies) interprets marketing as a system of measures to study the market and actively influence consumer demand in order to expand sales. Before the advent of “free enterprise” in Russia, the concept of marketing already included the management of consumer behavior.

The normative definition of the concept of "marketing" is given in the All-Russian Classifier of Economic Activities, Products and Services OK 004-93, approved by the Resolution of the State Standard of Russia dated 08/06/1993 No. 17, according to which marketing research is a service for analyzing and forecasting the development of market conditions and include research services life cycle certain types commercial products; marketing research; consideration of trade and distribution transactions; commercial planning production; comprehensive market research and the formation of a marketing concept; marketing information support. At the same time, marketing can be an integral part of other activities.

Marketing is entrepreneurial activity, which controls the promotion of goods and services from the producer to the consumer. Accordingly, marketing services are associated with ensuring the promotion of goods and services from the producer to the consumer.

In all these definitions, marketing is directly associated with management activities or a system of management and management. Therefore, if economics as a scientific discipline studies the proportion of the commodity-money supply under certain conditions and volumes, then marketing oversees the temporal indicator of commodity-money turnover, "affecting a wide range of economic and social activities." In this regard, it is necessary to use the entire arsenal of means - from studying the consumer to developing recommendations on the parameters of the “product” that can be sold to this consumer, providing a distribution channel, and, of course, developing measures that support the distribution channel “in good shape”, i.e. all kinds of promotion activities. It turns out that marketing is a complex of disciplines or a system of measures that control the speed of commodity-money turnover. Despite the fact that, like all modern disciplines, there are already hundreds of definitions of marketing, this definition, due to its conciseness, can be taken as the basis for developing a course on marketing communications management.

In the State Educational Standard of Higher vocational education specialty 061500 “Marketing” (10/17/2002) types of professional activities in qualification characteristic graduates are solely in the collection, analysis and processing of information, as well as the development of various recommendations and programs. Everything is focused on research or information-analytical skills, even in the sections “commodity-production activity” or “economic-managerial activity”. A marketing specialist can “control and manage the marketing activities of an enterprise”, that is, within the framework of special services(departments) or programs. A marketer can also “provide investment and risk management” also thanks to preliminary research and situation analysis.

The answer to the question why the function of management was forgotten in the educational standard, we will find in the first edition in Russian by marketing guru Philip Kotler. In 1982, F. Kotler's work "Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning and Control" was published in a significantly abridged form. In the Russian version, “marketing management” was translated as “marketing management”, that is, the organization of management of marketing processes. In the very theory of Kotler's marketing management, we are talking about building a "company management system based on the principles of marketing, that is, the complete orientation of all divisions and services of the company towards the realization of the ultimate goal: customer satisfaction". The school of marketing management, inextricably linked with the marketing mix, has made a significant contribution to the pedagogical processes. Actually, it was this American direction, usually significantly adapted by teachers, that was adopted by Russian universities.

But times have changed. Since the 90s of the last century, materials criticizing this approach appeared. Now many scientists, especially European ones, are talking about the need to find a new marketing paradigm that takes into account the tremendous changes in world markets.

In scientific circles, a controversy periodically arises about the basic tenets of marketing necessary to create a coherent system of teaching this discipline. In 1993, at the British Conference on Marketing Education, a group of researchers from the Henley Management College presented the results of a study of various definitions of marketing.

• 1. On the evolution of marketing concepts.
• 2. On changing the motives of consumer behavior.
• 3. Changes in the marketing environment led to the expansion of the original concept and its transfer to the non-profit sphere.
• 4. Marketing as a phenomenon has shown itself to be adaptive, flexible, not recognizing open boundaries.

The willingness to change, to absorb new approaches and tools is a fundamentally important condition for the existence of a modern economic entity. Therefore, we can offer our own definition of marketing as a system of measures (tools, technologies) that controls the time indicator of commodity-money (as conditional equivalents of values) relations, or a system of measures that controls the speed of exchange processes. Such a definition does not conflict with new entities such as benchmark marketing, Internet marketing, event marketing, and all other types of technologies that stick the word “marketing” to themselves (for example, olfactive marketing - marketing of fragrances for trading floors). All these phenomena also serve to improve the exchange processes in the market. Indeed, there are no fundamental differences between “trade marketing” and “trade channel marketing”. All novelties in theories, concepts, technologies appear either as a result of practical solutions some company, or thanks to the creativity of employees in consulting structures, and then the terminology is broadcast from the business environment to the scientific one. The opposite phenomenon, when they try to put scientific development in marketing into practice, is rare, since all this is associated with risks that business representatives do not take.

Marketing Principles- these are the fundamental provisions, circumstances, requirements that underlie marketing and reveal its essence and purpose. The essence of marketing lies in the fact that the production of goods and the provision of services must be oriented towards the consumer, demand, and constant coordination of production capabilities with market requirements.

In accordance with the essence of marketing, the following basic principles are distinguished:

1) Produce only what the consumer needs;

2) Enter the market not with the offer of goods and services, but with the means of solving consumer problems;

3) Organize the production of goods after researching needs and demand;

4) Concentrate efforts on achieving the final result of the production and export activities of the company;

5) Use a program-based method and an integrated approach to achieve the set goals. This involves the formation of marketing programs based on the use of a complex of marketing tools, their combination, and not individual marketing actions, since only marketing tools taken in interconnection and interdependence can provide a synergistic effect;

6) Apply the tactics and strategy of actively adapting the production of goods to the requirements of the market with a simultaneous, targeted impact on it in order to cover all the links in the chain of promotion of goods to the consumer with marketing;

7) Orient the activities of the enterprise as a whole and marketing service in particular, not for a momentary result, but for a long-term perspective of effective communications based on the implementation of strategic planning and forecasting the behavior of goods on the market;

8) Consider social and economic factors production and distribution of goods at all stages of their life cycle;

9) Remember the primacy of the market in relation to the plans of the enterprise and industries;

10) Adhere to the interaction and intersectoral coordination of the plan in order to balance supply and demand;

11) Strive for activity, in certain situations for aggressiveness in the process of searching for and forming competitive advantages of the image of an enterprise or goods on the market.

The principles of marketing determine the general direction of the enterprise in the field of marketing, which is carried out with the help of certain functions.

2. Functions of modern marketing

Based on the theory of marketing, organization and management, marketing functions can be considered as a set of stable, separate, specific areas of marketing activity, united by a common action in the preparation, adoption and implementation of decisions, due to the unity of the object and goals of marketing.

Marketing functions are classified into two categories: content (general) and the object of marketing influence (specific).

Analysis in marketing is the collection, processing, systematization and study of information; detection of deviations from planned programs and determining their causes; understanding of the possibilities and ways to eliminate these deviations; a summary of analytical materials on marketing and their presentation to managers and specialists; studying and establishing ways to improve the quality and effectiveness of marketing activities in the current situation.

Forecasting and goal setting are of great importance, since consumer behavior is changeable and you need to have a clear idea of ​​\u200b\u200bpossible situations in the future. Based on the forecasts, a target program, or a tree of goals for marketing activities, is developed.

Planning involves the calculation of the target program of the enterprise, its proportions and the availability of the necessary funds. With the help of this function, the planned development of production, management and marketing is achieved. Its components include forecasting, programming, design. Widely used in marketing and modeling.

Organization is designed to ensure the integrity, unity, orderliness of the marketing system, including the work of all its services. All components of this system, when combined, create a single structure, not only in statistics, but also in dynamics (in the process of functioning). This ensures specialization, cooperation, rhythm, synchronism and continuity of the marketing action.

Coordination and regulation ensure the smooth work of the enterprise team, its uniformity and consistency. In the course of an enterprise's operation, individual breakdowns are always possible; it is with the help of this function that the former planned organization of marketing is restored. Regulation is carried out with help. Measures of economic and socio-psychological impact, as well as direct administration.

Accounting and control necessary for the timely detection of deviations of the actual state of affairs from the planned (expected), establishing the causes of these deviations. Control must be comprehensive, constant and timely.

According to the object of marketing influence, marketing functions are classified as follows:

Analysis environment marketing;

Implementation of commodity policy;

Pricing and pricing policy;

Commodity distribution and sales of products;

Formation of demand and sales promotion - FOSTIS;

Commercial activity;

Accounting and financial activities;

Foreign economic marketing activities;

Maintenance of product life cycle;

Marketing management.

In the process of marketing activities, general and specific functions are intertwined. So, in the implementation of any specific function, all general functions are also performed.

3. Varieties of marketing and their application

Depending on the stages of the evolution of marketing, the scope of its application, the nature of demand in the market for goods and services, there are different types of marketing.

The main types of marketing are: undifferentiated, differentiated, concentrated, integrated and communicative (interconnected) marketing.

undifferentiated Marketing (actively developed in the 50s) does not provide for the division of the market into segments and is associated with a wide capture of the entire market and requires costs and resources.

Differentiated marketing (originated in the 60s) involves covering several market segments and releasing a product for each of them.

The development of the idea of ​​segmentation has led to a new type of marketing - concentrated marketing, the meaning of which is to concentrate efforts and resources not on all market segments, but on the main market segment, the least covered by the market, with good purchasing power.

Complex marketing (marketing mix) should be considered as an integral action of the management system for all elements of marketing ("product - price - buyer - sales - advertising"), which provides the possibility of obtaining a synergistic effect from the use of marketing.

interconnected(relationship marketing, communicative) marketing, in this case, attention is drawn to the fact that the marketing function should go far beyond the marketing service and spread throughout the enterprise, its divisions and cover all personnel involved in the process of creating and marketing products. This type of marketing is clearly manifested in the marketing of interaction, relationships and communications.

Depending on the nature of the demand that takes place in the market, the following types of marketing are distinguished: conversion, stimulating, developing, remarketing, synchromarketing, supporting, demarketing, counteracting marketing.

Conversion marketing exists when there is negative demand in the market. The market is in a state of negative demand, when most of it dislikes this product and tries to avoid it. People have a negative demand for dental procedures, vaccinations, etc. Employers have a negative demand for hiring former prisoners, alcoholics. All this is negative (negative) demand.

The task of conversion marketing is to analyze why the market dislikes a product and whether the marketing program can change attitudes for the better. The conversion type of marketing focuses consumers on changing a negative attitude towards a product to a positive one. This can be done by improving the quality of the product, reducing its price and promoting it to the market more effectively.

Stimulating marketing is used when there is no demand. Lack of demand exists when the target consumers are indifferent to the product.

Here the task of marketing is to find ways to link the inherent benefits of the product with the needs and interests of the buyer. Through incentive marketing, the indifferent attitude of potential buyers towards a product can be changed through such approaches as sharp price reductions, increased advertising campaigns, public relations.

Developing marketing is used in conditions of latent demand. Latent (potential demand) exists when many consumers experience a desire that cannot be satisfied with existing products and services. There is a large hidden (potential demand) for harmless cigarettes, safer neighborhoods and more fuel-efficient cars.

The task of this type of marketing is to assess the size of the potential market and develop effective products in order to turn potential demand into real. The study of unmet customer needs, the development of new products to meet the studied needs, the use of special advertising tools can help create real demand.

Remarketing used in the event of a drop in demand. Sooner or later, any enterprise is faced with a drop in demand for one or more of its products. The marketer must analyze the reasons for the decline in the market and determine whether sales can be stimulated again. The task of remarketing is to restore demand by penetrating new markets, changing the properties of goods focused on new consumer needs.

Synchromarketing used in the presence of seasonal, daily or hourly fluctuations in demand. For many businesses, sales fluctuate on a seasonal, daily, or even hourly basis. For example, urban transport is unloaded during the lull of the day, and during peak hours it cannot cope with traffic. In such cases, it is said that there is an irregular (fluctuating) demand.

The goal of synchromarketing is to find ways to smooth out fluctuations in demand over time through flexible pricing and other incentives.

supportive marketing is used when an enterprise (firm) is satisfied with the results of marketing activities, its volumes and quality indicators. In such cases, the presence of a full-fledged demand for products is noted.

The task of this type of marketing is to maintain the existing level of demand, despite changing consumer preferences and competition.

Demarketing- a type of marketing used in conditions of excessive demand. A number of enterprises have a level of demand that is higher than they can or want to meet. In such cases, it is said that there is an excessive demand.

The task of marketing with excessive demand is to find ways to temporarily or permanently reduce demand. The goal in this case is not to eliminate demand, but only to reduce its level. Such methods may include price increases, temporary cessation of advertising work, transfer of rights to manufacture this product, licenses, know-how to other enterprises.

Reactive marketing is used to eliminate or reduce such demand, which is called irrational or irrational. There are goods and services demand for which may be contrary to social requirements and consumption standards. In such situations, the satisfaction of demand seems undesirable due to the negative consequences of the consumption of relevant harmful goods and services (alcoholic beverages, drugs, tobacco products, etc.)

Here the task of marketing is to convince consumers to give up their habits by spreading fearsome information, raising prices and limiting the availability of goods.

The use of various types of marketing allows for flexible marketing activities based on high responsibility to customers and society.

There are other classifications of types of marketing.

Depending on the purpose of the exchange, the results of a particular activity, commercial and non-commercial marketing are distinguished.

Commercial marketing is carried out in enterprises whose purpose is to make a profit. Therefore, sometimes commercial marketing is called marketing of profitable organizations. There is marketing of non-profit entities and organizations (organization of the municipal level, city, region, school, clinic and hospital, etc.) and is called non-profit marketing.

According to the sphere of exchange or territorial basis, national (regional, local) marketing and international (export, global, world) marketing are most often distinguished.

According to the scope of marketing, marketing is distinguished: consumer, industrial, investment and marketing of services.

Depending on the type of activity, it can be: marketing of an organization, marketing of an individual (ego marketing), marketing of ideas, marketing of a place, etc.

Under organization marketing refers to activities undertaken to create and maintain a favorable image of enterprises or firms. This approach is practiced by all organizations, and not just those that exist at the expense of their profits. Marketing of the organization is carried out by public relations departments. This also includes the so-called political marketing, carried out by authorities, political parties.

Individual Marketing(personal marketing) - an activity undertaken to create, maintain or change the attitude or behavior of the public towards specific individuals. Many people use personal marketing to increase their popularity and expand their business: politicians, artists, athletes, lawyers, businessmen, etc. The process of personal marketing is similar to the process of marketing physical products and services. It also starts with market research, identifying market segments and needs. Next, product development begins, i.e. determining to what extent the qualities of the personality and its “design and packaging” correspond to the needs, and to what extent this personality needs to be transformed so that it satisfies these needs to a greater extent. Finally, a program is being developed to promote the personality and its “delivery” to consumers.

Idea Marketing usually used in relation to such social ideas as reducing the level of smoking, alcohol consumption, stopping drug use, protecting the environment, etc. (in a broad sense, any marketing is the marketing of certain ideas).

Under place marketing refers to activities undertaken to create, maintain or change customer relationships or behavior in relation to individual locations. Here, first of all, it should be highlighted: marketing zones economic activity(location of factories, shops, offices, etc.), marketing of holiday destinations (attracting vacationers and tourists to specific cities, regions, countries), marketing of housing and marketing of investments in land property (arrangement and sale of land plots as business facilities and premises capital).

Recently, in the development of place marketing ideas, marketing of entire regions, cities and other settlements is used, aimed at attracting capital and ensuring the sustainable development of this region. This type of marketing is called territorial (regional).

Territorial Marketing- this is marketing in the interests of the territory, its internal subjects, as well as external subjects, in whose attention the territory is interested. It is carried out with the aim of creating, maintaining and changing the opinions, intentions of subjects external to the given territory. Territorial marketing is aimed at creating and maintaining the prestige of the territory as a whole, the attractiveness of natural, material, technical, financial, labor, organizational, social and other resources concentrated on the territory, as well as opportunities for the implementation and reproduction of such resources.

Interesting experience of regions and cities of different countries is accumulating in using the potential of marketing in order to increase the tourist and commercial attractiveness of the regions. Speaking of territorial marketing, attention is focused on the motives and goals of entrepreneurs, on the benefits that they seek to obtain in the new region where they transfer their activity, which may hinder their desire for this territory.

4. Categories of marketing as a scientific discipline

At the heart of marketing theory, one of the main ones are such socio-economic categories as need, need, demand, exchange, transaction.

Need- a feeling of a lack of something felt by a person.

Human needs are varied and complex. These include basic physiological needs for food, clothing, warmth, and security; social needs for spiritual closeness, influence and affection; personal needs for knowledge and self-expression. All these needs are the original components of human nature. In a person's life, if the need is not satisfied, he feels destitute and unhappy. A dissatisfied person is looking for ways to satisfy her.

Need- need, desire, which has taken a specific form within the framework of cultural, aesthetic, historical, geographical and other factors that determine the behavior of an individual in the socio-economic system. Needs are expressed in objects that can satisfy the need in a way that is inherent in the cultural structure of a given society. As society develops, the needs of its members change.

Demand(request) - a specific need presented on the market, i.e. need backed by money. The needs of people are almost unlimited, but the resources to meet them are limited. The buyer chooses the goods that will give him the greatest satisfaction, taking into account his financial opportunities. Human wants and needs presuppose the existence of goods to satisfy them.

Product it is everything that can satisfy a need or need and is offered on the market in order to attract the attention of the consumer. The more fully the product corresponds to the desires of the consumer, the more successful the manufacturer achieves. Therefore, manufacturers must find consumers to whom they want to sell their product, find out their needs, and then create a product that best meets these needs.

The concept of "goods" is not limited to physical objects. Anything that can provide a service, that is, satisfy a need, can be called a commodity. In addition to products and services, these can be activities, ideas, and so on. The consumer decides what kind of entertainment program to watch on television, where to go on vacation, what ideas to support.

Exchange is the act of receiving from someone the desired object with the offer of something in return. Exchange is the basic concept of marketing. Marketing takes place when people decide to satisfy their needs and wants through exchange.

Exchange is one of four ways in which individuals can obtain a desired object. For example, a hungry person can get food in different ways:

Provide food for yourself by hunting, fishing or fruit picking (self-sufficiency);

Steal food (weaning);

To beg her (begging);

Offer a means of compensation for the provided food: money, another product or some kind of service (exchange).

Of the four ways to satisfy a need, exchange has the greatest advantage. In this case, people do not need to encroach on the rights of others. You don't have to depend on someone else's charity.

When making a voluntary exchange, five conditions must be met:

1) There must be at least two parties to make an exchange.

2) Each side must have something that could be of value to the other side.

3) Each party must be able to communicate and deliver its goods.

4) Each party must be completely free to accept or reject the proposal of the other party.

5) Each party must be confident in the expediency or desirability of dealing with the other party.

Deal considered as a trading option between interested parties in the process of buying and selling a product or service. The deal is subject to certain conditions:

1) The presence of at least two value-significant objects.

2) Achievement of agreed conditions for its implementation.

3) The agreed time of completion.

4) Agreed venue.

A transaction must be distinguished from a mere transfer. When transferring, the party transfers a certain object to the party, while receiving nothing in return. The transfers relate to gifts, subsidies, charity events.

Bibliography

1. Demchenko A.F., Konovalova S.N., Firsova O.V. Marketing. Tutorial. - Voronezh: VGAU, 2003 - 296 p.

2. Golubkov E.P. Marketing. – M.: Finpress, 1998 – 416 p.

3. Kotler F. Fundamentals of marketing: Per. from English. – M.: Rosinter, 1996. – 704 p.

4. Marketing. Principles and technology of marketing in a free market system: Textbook for universities / Ed. N.D. Eriashvili. - M.: Banks and stock exchanges, UNITI, 1998. - 255 p.

5. Evans J.R., Berman B. Marketing. – M.: Sirin, 2002. – 308 p.

6. Marketing: Textbook / A.N. Romanov, Yu.Yu. Korlyugov, S.A. Krasilnikov and others / Ed. A.N. Romanova. - M.: Banks and stock exchanges, UNITI, 1995. - 560 p.

To date, there are about 2000 definitions of the concept of "marketing", which in various combinations reflect the main tasks, processes and concepts of marketing.

The word "marketing" in English literally means "the act of buying and selling in the market." The term "marketing" was found in 1905-1910 in America, perhaps it is in connection with this that the definitions given by the Americans are considered "classic". One of the first definitions was given by McCarthy: "marketing is a complex of business operations for managing the flow of goods and services from producers to consumers, carried out to meet the needs of the latter and realize the purpose of the enterprise."

Today, F. Kotler's definition is considered a marketing classic: "marketing is a type of human activity aimed at satisfying needs and requirements through exchange."

The problem of defining marketing is also complicated by the ambiguity of classifying this phenomenon with the help of scientific categories. German professors E. Dichtl and X. Hershgen talk about 4 possible positions for interpreting marketing:

1) marketing can be considered as a principle of enterprise management;

2) as a means of achieving certain goals;

3) as a method;

4) as a philosophy, as a market-oriented way of thinking.

A special role in the search for a definition was played by a systematic approach, which not only gained popularity in the 60s. XX century due to the priority positions of cybernetics as an innovative activity, but also became one of the fundamental research and management approaches. The system approach is based on the understanding of any object as a structure of elements of different levels and relationships, relationships between them. All elements of the system are interconnected and interdependent, therefore, a change in one element entails a change in others and a change in the entire system as an integral entity. In addition, any system almost always acts as an element of a higher-level system and is interconnected with other systems, as a result of which it is subject to the influence not only of processes occurring within it, but also of processes external to it.

A huge impact on the variety of definitions of marketing has had a variety of points of view on the goals, objectives and content of marketing activities. It is not uncommon to define marketing based on economic concepts (for example, profit maximization, income increase, market, competitiveness, etc.), on management concepts (planning, regulation, organization, etc.).

F. Kotler, one of the leading modern marketing theorists, defines it through the concept of a transaction as a result of an exchange. Sh. Hunt calls marketing the science of behavior, which is focused on explaining the relationship of the parties in such an exchange.

The use of the phenomenon of exchange as a category of marketing makes it possible to single out a sociological approach to the definition of the concept of marketing. Exchange is interpreted as a basic social process leading to the formation of a social structure and present in all situations of social interaction. Marketing is defined as the activity of optimizing this process and respecting the terms of a mutually beneficial exchange.

History of marketing

Approximate time of appearance of marketing - the end of the XIX - the beginning of the XX century.

The development of large-scale machine production in the leading industrial powers (USA, Germany, England) led to a violation of the sustainable development of social space, to the emergence of social tension, and caused many crises. different type, because the pace and scale of production entered into an imbalance with the existing system of distribution of material resources and traditional sales algorithms. In response to this imbalance, the need to maintain stability, on the one hand, and stimulate development, on the other, marketing appeared: first as a field of applied activity for the sale of products, then as a scientific and applied discipline aimed at building effective relationships between the supplier and consumer.

Currently generally accepted are the following concepts of marketing activities :

1) improving production, i.e. production(until the early 1930s) - any product will be in demand if it is affordable and widely represented on the market;

2) improving sales, i.e. marketing(until the early 1950s) - any product can be sold if efforts are made to do so;

3) product improvement, those. commodity(before the early 1970s) - any product can be sold on the market if it is of good quality;

4) consumer(until the end of the 1970s) - the product will be sold on the market if its production is preceded by a study of the situation and market needs;

5) social and ethical marketing(1980s) - a quality product will be in demand if it meets non-economic social needs (environmental protection, product safety, etc.).

Marketing performs two main functions: orientation of production to meet existing and potential needs; formation and stimulation of demand. “Produce what is bought, not sell what is produced” is the main formula of marketing. However, there is another, usually not advertised side of it - if a product, even if it is unusable, is produced, then it must be sold. Thus, marketing is designed to harmonize production and consumption, introducing elements of regulation into the market mechanism.

The concept of marketing was predicted back in 1776 by A. Smith, who wrote that consumption is the only and ultimate goal of production, i.e. marketing is the process of matching a company's capabilities with the desires and needs of customers in order to achieve the desired results by both parties. Thanks to marketing, the company produces not what it wants, but goods for which there are market demand(see table 1.3).

Table 1.3. The evolution of the concept of marketing

years	Concept	Leading idea	Basic Toolkit	the main objective
1860-1920	Production	I produce what I can	cost, performance	Production improvement, sales growth, profit maximization
1920-1930	Commodity	I produce quality goods	Commodity policy	Perfection consumer properties goods
1930-1950	Marketing	Develop sales network, distribution channels	Sales policy	Intensify sales of goods through marketing efforts to promote and sell goods
1960-1980	Traditional Marketing	I produce what the consumer needs	Marketing-mix complex, consumer research	Meeting the needs and demands of target markets
1980 - present tense	Strategic Marketing	I produce what you need different groups consumers	Systematic analysis of market needs, marketing mix, consumer research, segmentation and positioning	Meeting the needs and requirements of specific customer groups, developing effective products, sustainable competitive advantage
1980-1995	Socio-ethical marketing	I produce what the consumer needs, taking into account the requirements of society	The marketing mix complex, the study of social and environmental consequences of the production and consumption of manufactured goods and services	Satisfying the needs of the needs of target markets, subject to saving human, material, energy and other resources, environmental protection
1995 - present	Individual Marketing	I produce what the individual consumer needs	Interactive communication (determining customer preferences, recording them and responding to them), marketing mix complex	Continuous and long-term mutually beneficial relationship, peace of mind, confidence in the future
Interaction Marketing	I produce what satisfies consumers and business partners	Methods of coordination, integration and network analysis, marketing mix complex	Meeting the needs of consumers, the interests of partners and the state in the process of their commercial and non-commercial interaction
Experience Marketing	I offer something that satisfies a particular consumer and creates positive emotions for him	Marketing, advertising and PR methods, production personalization	Bring a playful or entertaining element to something that might otherwise be dull and unnoticed. Make an unforgettable impression

Currently, the following approaches to the organization of marketing activities are generally recognized:

1. Production concept or Production improvement concept argued, in particular, that consumers would favor products that are widely available and affordable. Therefore, this concept has chosen to improve production and increase the efficiency of the distribution system as the main object of attention. The leading means of achieving the goal were recommended to increase the scale of production and reduce the cost of production.

This concept is still alive today - it is still flourishing in the field of budgetary, social services, having shifted to where marketing did not exist at all before - to the sphere of non-commercial relations. The negative features and consequences of using this concept are indifference to the needs of consumers, the depersonalization of consumers, goods, and firms.

2. The concept of product improvement (product concept, product concept) put forward as a core thesis the assertion that consumers will favor those products that have the highest quality, best performance and characteristics. The main object of attention was the product, according to the principle: the main thing is the mousetrap (and not the problem of getting rid of mice). Marketing efforts focused on improving the quality of goods, the main means of achieving the goal was declared the modernization of manufactured goods. The sphere of existence of marketing has shifted somewhat to where it was no longer a purely industrial, but a completely technocratic approach that dominated. The negative features and consequences of the implementation of such a strategy can be considered marketing myopia, omission from the view of the problems and needs of the client, design possibilities, packaging, prices.

3. The concept of intensifying commercial efforts (sales concept) - argues that consumers will not buy enough of a firm's products if the firm does not make significant marketing and promotional efforts. The most worthy end goal of a firm and its marketing is to make a profit by increasing sales. The focus is on the sales process. The main content of marketing is taking care of the needs of the seller to turn his goods into cash. The leading means of achieving the goal are commercial efforts and sales promotion measures, "hard" sales in order to force a purchase to be made immediately, on the spot. Modern sphere applications of this concept - the sale of goods and services of passive demand (which the consumer normally does not think about - insurance, pensions, land for burial), popular (large-scale) goods, election campaigns. Negative consequences - loss of customer confidence due to concealment of product flaws, forcing an immediate purchase.

By the 1970s comes the understanding that sales cannot exclusively dominate marketing. The idea that marketing is not at all “the art of selling ice to an Eskimo”, that it is not identical to sales and is needed so that traditional sales problems (to whom and how to sell) does not become at all, is increasingly asserted. Marketing is comprehended as a set of tools for product and pricing policy, promotion and sales policy. A special term “marketing mix” appears, which is unsuccessfully translated by us as “marketing mix”, but in fact represents the first significant step in the formation of a systematic understanding of marketing.

4. In the concept of general marketing, smoothly transitioning to marketing mix concept , the achievement of the ultimate goal - making a profit - is directly linked to the main condition: the effective satisfaction of consumer needs. Thus, a new main object of attention is formed - the needs of the consumer, illustrated by the chased wording: "The consumer needs not a drill bit, but a well."

The main content of marketing activity is the concern for meeting the needs of the consumer through the product and a number of factors associated with the creation, supply and consumption of this product. Means to achieve the goal - complex marketing efforts (marketing mix). This type of marketing still dominates in areas where there is work with consumer goods produced by large companies.

5. In the mid 1980s. a number of concepts arose - strategic socially oriented (socio-ethical), individual marketing, relationship marketing.

Concept of strategic marketing focuses marketing efforts on a long-term perspective and, in essence, is a constant and systematic analysis of market needs, leading to the development of effective products intended for specific groups of buyers and having special properties that distinguish them from competing products and thus create a sustainable competitive advantage for the manufacturer.

The concept of social and ethical marketing, formed on the basis of strategic marketing, considers marketing activities in close connection with the new global problems of mankind - environmental, ethical, educational - generated by the post-industrial society, information civilization. The deterioration of the quality of the environment, bioethical problems (for example, organ transplants, abortions, facilitating the end of life - euthanasia), the arrogance of introducing information media into a person's personal life, put up difficult-to-solve equations, where, on the one hand, firms' profits, and with the other is not only current current needs, but also long-term well-being, an increment in the value of human life as a whole. In kinship with this concept, megamarketing arose, focusing on the marketing problems of large social communities, public policy.

Special mention deserves the marketing of long-term partnerships and its core - individual marketing concept . It is the continuous use of knowledge about the individual consumer, obtained through interactive communication, in order to create and promote products and services in order to ensure continuous and long-term mutually beneficial relationships.

Individual marketing consists in perceiving the reaction of a particular buyer, in interaction with him, involves determining the preferences of the buyer, recording them and responding to them. The advantages of such relationships are: for the buyer - the effectiveness of contact, for the manufacturer - profit, for both - peace of mind, confidence in the future.

Personal marketing has already been developed in the areas of luxury hospitality, in the organization of individual recreation and treatment, in banking, it can be used in the market of any individualized goods in sectors where purchase repeatability is part of the formula for success. Trusting relationships are more important than low prices than active (and obsessive) product promotion than modern technologies. As proponents and promoters of individual marketing argue, market changes can change price and technology, but good relationships can last for life and be passed on to successors. At the same time, we are talking directly about the success of the relationship between future generations of entrepreneurs (manufacturers, intermediaries) and customers (consumers).

Experience Marketing- impressions associated with the use of goods and services.

At Starbucks, for just $2, we can experience first hand what real coffee should taste and smell like. Restaurants such as Planet Hollywood and Hard Rock Cafe primarily offer their customers new, unusual experiences.

Hotels in Las Vegas, according to their owners, should convey the atmosphere of Ancient Rome or New York. The Walt Disney company remains an unsurpassed master in this area, which gives its customers the opportunity to visit the Wild West, a fairy-tale castle, a pirate ship, and so on. The goal of the experience dealer is to bring to life what might otherwise go unnoticed or underestimated.

It is this vivacity that drives us to buy Niketown sneakers, where fifteen-foot shots of Michael Jordan look at us from all sides. We can not only try on sneakers, but immediately try them out on the real basketball court. We can go to one of REI, a chain that sells outdoor equipment, and try out carabiners and ropes on a wall built specifically for climbers, or walk in a new raincoat in artificial heavy rain. We can buy tackle in Bass Pro and try to catch fish in the store pond.

For independent study:

1. The theory of "consumer society"(W. Rostow, J. Galbraith, P. Samuelson, etc.)

Its content boils down to the following - for a society that has reached a very high stage of industrial development, a stage begins when the urgent personal needs for food, clothing, comfortable housing are satisfied, and the incomes of society members significantly exceed the costs for these purposes. High incomes lead to the fact that durable goods are actively and on a large scale involved in the sphere of mass consumption, and the role of various services is also steadily increasing. growing specific gravity relevant industries, and their role in the economy is becoming a leading one. Consumer wealth and services becomes a central figure, the center of economic life; production, as well as most social processes, is subject to his aspirations.

This concept has been most fully explored W. Rostow, the author of the well-known theory of the stages of economic growth. He believed that since the beginning of the 20s of the 20th century, the stage of mass consumption had begun for the United States, while others the developed countries either came close to it, or entered into it. According to W. Rostow, the reason for the emergence of this stage is the following: the preceding “stage of economic maturity” creates material opportunities to meet a variety of material and spiritual needs of a person, and in people’s “realization” of the usefulness of just such a development path. According to him, society no longer considers "the further development of technology its main goal", it is not interested in the problems of production, since the main thing now is the problems of consumption and well-being.

The teachings about the standard of living, about a society of mass consumption received their further development in quality of life concepts that arose in the 1960s. In part, these processes are reflected in the theory of mass society. Mass society theory- a theory that considers mass character as a decisive characteristic of all processes and phenomena modern society and explaining its specifics. A number of sociologists (D. Matindale, D. Bell, E. Shils) argue that there are processes of integration of the masses and the formation of a homogeneous society.

2. Consumerism as a social phenomenon. Consumerism (consumerism) - an organized movement of civil society actors: citizens, consumer unions, trade unions, environmental movements, etc., for the empowerment and increased influence of buyers on sellers and manufacturers of goods.

Participants in the movement strive to ensure that each consumer has, firstly, the right to receive comprehensive information about the most important features of the goods (the manufacturer's costs for the production and maintenance of the product; the ingredients, components used, some generally significant characteristics of the technology; the degree of usefulness of the product, the degree of freshness of the product, its advantages or characteristics over its counterparts Second, the consumer should have the right to be protected from questionable products and questionable marketing practices, and the right to influence products and marketing practices to increase their contribution to a “quality of life”.

In the United States, consumerism became a tangible force in the 60s, when D. Kennedy, in a special presidential message in 1962, declared the rights of consumers to the safety of consumption, to information about the characteristics of goods, to the choice of goods. In 1985, the UN General Assembly approved the "Guiding Principles for Consumer Protection", which outlined the main directions of international activity in this area: ensuring the physical safety of consumers; protection of economic interests by ensuring satisfactory technical and operational characteristics of products; strengthening measures to control unfair competition; ensuring proper maintenance and supply of spare parts; dissemination of reliable information; promoting the creation of consumer associations and cooperatives, etc.

A special form of implementation of the ideas of consumerism is the introduction of the International Day for the Protection of Consumer Rights as a tool for social advertising, promotion of consumer knowledge, popularization of special programs of public administration.

In Russia, consumerism has not yet taken such a serious position in the system social management, as in countries with extensive experience of market relations in conditions of mass production and consumption. Nevertheless, Russian society quickly perceives the ideas of consumerism. First of all, legal response as an indicator of the importance of the problem social development. In Russia, there is a law “On the Protection of Consumer Rights”, which is aimed at implementing the above “Guiding Principles for the Protection of Consumer Interests” of the UN General Assembly.

Consumerism is also manifested in the popularization of consumer knowledge on the basis of the mass media and the general education system.

Thus, consumerism is an example of a social management mechanism focused on ensuring sustainable development and maintaining humanitarian priorities. Consumerism acts as a guarantor of the civilized development of market relations, bringing the interests of consumers to the level of socially and economically significant phenomena and influencing the priorities and directions of development of society at the present stage.

3. Community(community) - a community of Internet visitors, a kind of virtual alternative to consumerism. It is based on the common interests of a wide range of users, in most cases not connected by any other common parameters. Modern communication technologies implemented on the Internet make it possible to create original interest clubs in the virtual space. Their distinguishing feature is precisely the commitment to a particular issue, issue, subject of discussion.

The community is a social phenomenon, the emergence and development of which is stimulated by informatization, not only technologically, but also socially. The variety of problems surrounding modern man enhance the role of information in the decision-making process, the role of the analytical component in social behavior. Meanwhile, the social experience of our contemporary has formed in him the need to discuss vital problems, serious decisions, and communities are the answer to this need.

4. Prosumerism. The concept of "prosumerism" was formed on the basis of the merger of the English terms product and consumerism. The very term "prosumerism" owes its appearance to American sociologists, who used it to refer to a certain stage, a phase in the development of the United States, which is characterized by the fact that the American layman lives in a society of mass production and consumption.

Today, prosumerism in most cases is understood as an approach to marketing, which is characterized by a focus on the problems of the mass market and the priority of the consumer in marketing strategies. The emergence of this approach dates back to the late 50s - early 70s of the XX century and coincides in time with the formation of a new stage of social development, called the "mass consumer society". One of the first works, in which the foundations of the prosumerist paradigm were voiced, was the work of T. Levitt "Marketing myopia", which was released in 1960. At the same time, the works of F. Kotler became cult works that popularized prosumerism all over the world.

Prosumerism is focused on the production of such products that do not require efforts to sell and stimulate it. The main idea of ​​prosumerism is expressed as follows: "Produce what is sold, and not sell what is produced" and requires the derivation marketing research consumer to the level of the leading process of marketing activities.

Practical tasks

SEMINAR 1. Introduction to the problems of the course "Marketing of territories"

1. Social and "commercial" marketing: common features and features.

2. Territory marketing: concept, subjects, varieties.

3. Authorities are the key subject of territory marketing: levels of authority and "customers". Internal and external environment of the territory.

Control questions

What is marketing in modern management?

What are the historical stages of marketing development?

What are the key features of social and "commercial" marketing? What are their specifics?

What is the essence of territory marketing? Object and subject of territory marketing?

What are the types of territory marketing subjects? What are their features?

Who is the key subject of territory marketing? Who is his "client"?

What is the internal and external environment of the territory?

Explain what modern marketing in management is: philosophy, technology and/or tool. Identify current marketing issues.

Determine the role and importance of marketing in state and municipal government. Explain the difference between marketing in "commercial" organizations and in state and municipal authorities.

Designate key factors and subjects of internal and external environment territory.

Essay topics

Economic and sociological approaches to marketing: common and different.

Term "marketing " comes from the English word "market" (market) and literally means activity in the field of the market.

The founder of marketing as a science is the American professor F. Kotler, who created the structure of the discipline, introduced and defined the main categories of marketing, formulated its basic concepts and showed ways to implement them.

According to Kotler, marketing is a type of human activity aimed at satisfying needs and requirements through exchange.

Currently, there are about 2000 definitions of marketing in the world literature. Thus, the American Marketing Association defines it as: "the process of planning and implementing the idea, pricing, promotion and implementation of ideas, goods and services through exchange that satisfies the goals of individuals and organizations." The definition of marketing given by the British Institute of Management is widespread in the West: “Marketing is one of the types of management activities that promotes the expansion of production and trade and the increase in employment by identifying consumer needs, organizing research and development to meet these needs; marketing links the possibilities of production with the possibilities of selling goods and services, justifies the nature, directing the scale of all the work necessary to make a profit.

Despite the large number of definitions of marketing, a number of domestic and foreign scientists unequivocally come to the conclusion that no one has yet been able to formulate a clear and comprehensive definition of this concept that would find universal application.

In the formation of the modern concept of marketing, five main stages of development can be distinguished (Table 1).

How special approach to the management of production and marketing, it stood out at the beginning of the twentieth century, when large-scale production was taking shape, competition sharply intensified. This stimulated the search and development of new approaches to managing the market activities of firms, stimulating demand for manufactured products. This process was most acute in the United States. American economists of that time emphasized that the main problem for entrepreneurs was analysis and marketing.

During this period, marketing was linked mainly only with the sale of goods.

After the crisis of 1929-1933, marketing lost its purely sales orientation. It acquired a complex character, began to cover various aspects of the functioning of firms, becoming one of the most important elements of their activities in developing and promoting products to consumers, creating conditions for increasing demand for goods.

From the late 1950s to the early 1970s, firms focused on the marketing mix and its elements.

The next stage in the development of marketing theory is the 70s of the twentieth century. This period was characterized by the intensification of the struggle of consumers for their rights and the strengthening of the movement for environmental protection.

Table 1

The main stages in the development of marketing theory

Stage and duration	Stage characteristic
Stage 1: late 19th - early 20th century	The emergence of marketing with a focus on sales optimization and product advertising.
Stage 2: mid-1930s - early 1950s	Loss of purely marketing orientation by marketing, expansion of activities related to complex market research, product development and its promotion on the market.
3rd stage: the beginning of the 50s - the beginning of the 70s of the twentieth century	Marketing is seen as a set of functions aimed at meeting the needs of end users in a more effective way than competitors.
Stage 4: the beginning of the 70s - the beginning of the 80s of the twentieth century.	Scientific analysis of public opinion and its use in the activities of firms.
Stage 5: 1980s to the present day.	Strategic planning market activity based on a thorough analysis of the factors of the marketing environment of the enterprise.

At the beginning of the 80s of the 20th century, the era of strategic marketing began. The intensive change and impact on enterprises of environmental factors has necessitated forecasting the market situation and the development of marketing plans that involve the adaptation of the enterprise to changing environmental conditions.

Currently, marketing has become one of the most important concepts in managing an enterprise in a market environment.

Stage 1 - mass marketing (late 19th - early 20th century)

Stage 2 - production marketing (from the beginning of the 20th century to the middle of the 20th century)

Stage 3 - consumer marketing (from the middle of the twentieth century to the present)

Mass Marketing associated with mass production, distribution, promotion of the same product for all buyers at once.

Production Marketing associated with the production of one or more goods with different properties, different qualities in different packaging, etc. Most Russian enterprises are at this stage of marketing development.

Consumer Marketing differs from the previous types in that the company distinguishes between market segments, selects one or more of them, and develops its own product and the entire marketing mix for each segment.

As a scientific discipline, marketing is closely related to other sciences.

Theoretical basis marketing is an economic theory. Research and analysis of the market situation is based on the principles and methods of statistics and sociology. The study of consumers and analysis of the marketing environment is carried out using knowledge from such sciences as demography, sociology, psychology, etc. Theory accounting, the economics of the enterprise underlie the comprehensive assessment of the competitiveness of the enterprise in the industry market. Mathematics is used in modeling economic and social processes.

• "Marketing is a kind of human activity aimed at satisfying needs and wants through exchange." (Philip Kotler)
• "Marketing is a social process aimed at satisfying the needs and desires of individuals and groups through the creation, supply, and free exchange of goods and services of value." (Philip Kotler)
• “Marketing is the art and science of choosing the right target market, attracting, retaining and increasing the number of customers by creating the confidence of the buyer that he represents the highest value for the company”, as well as “an orderly and purposeful process of understanding consumer problems and regulating market activities” . (Philip Kotler)
• “Marketing is the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and expanding offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large). (American Marketing Association (AMA))
• “Marketing is a system of planning, pricing, promoting and distributing ideas, goods and services to meet the needs, wants and desires of individuals and organizations; advertising is only one factor in the marketing process.”
• “Marketing is one of the management systems of a capitalist enterprise, which involves careful consideration of the processes taking place in the market for making economic decisions. The purpose of marketing is to create conditions for adapting production to social demand, market requirements, to develop a system of organizational and technical measures to study the market, intensify sales, increase the competitiveness of goods in order to maximize profits. The main functions of marketing: the study of demand, pricing issues, advertising and sales promotion, planning the product range, sales and trading operations, activities related to the storage, transportation of goods, management of sales and commercial personnel, organization of customer service.
• Marketing is the management of the production and marketing activities of an organization, which is based on a constant comprehensive analysis of the market. Marketing includes: pricing, product policy, forecasting and study of demand, advertising activities, public relations, organization of intra-company culture, etc. Marketing is sometimes narrowly defined as "market research".

Most researchers agree that marketing is a process. It starts with a study of the target market segment for which the company is going to work. Marketers determine the potential demand and its size (capacity of the market segment), that is, they identify buyers whose needs are not sufficiently satisfied or who have an implicit interest in certain goods or services. Segmentation of the market and the selection of those parts of it that the company is able to serve in the best way is carried out. Plans are being developed for creating and bringing products to the consumer, as well as a marketing mix strategy (Eng. marketing mix) impact on demand through the product, price, distribution channels and methods of promoting the product. Create a marketing audit system that will allow you to evaluate the results of ongoing activities and the degree of their impact on consumers.

Marketing adheres to the following five basic principles:

• the production and sale of goods must meet the needs of buyers, the market situation and the company's capabilities;
• full satisfaction of the needs of customers and compliance with the modern technical and artistic level;
• presence on the market at the time of the most effectively possible sale of products;
• constant updating of manufactured or sold products;
• unity of strategy and tactics for quick response to changing demand.

Functions and concepts of marketing. Usually the content of marketing is identified with sales and its promotion, advertising. However, in fact, sales is one of the functions of marketing and often not the most essential. If a firm has done a good job on such sections of marketing as identifying consumer needs, developing suitable products and setting an appropriate price for them, establishing a distribution system and effective incentives, then such products will no longer have sales problems, unless the firm operates in a highly competitive market. . As management theorists say: “The goal of marketing is to make sales efforts unnecessary. Its goal is to know and understand the client so well that the product or service will fit the latter exactly and sell itself.

All this does not mean that sales and promotion efforts lose their importance. These functions become part of a larger marketing mix, that is, a set of marketing tools that need to be harmoniously linked together in order to achieve maximum market impact. In general, marketing is a human activity, one way or another related to the market.

Marketing functions form the following concepts: need, needs, demand, product, exchange, transaction and market.

The basic idea behind marketing is the idea of ​​human needs.

Need- a feeling of lack of something. The needs of people are diverse and complex, but in general their number is finite, in contrast to needs. Here are the basic physiological needs for food, clothing, warmth and security; and social needs for spiritual intimacy, influence, and affection; personal needs for knowledge and self-expression. Most of these needs are determined by the original components of human nature. If the need is not satisfied, the person feels unsatisfied and seeks either to find an object capable of satisfying the need, or to try to drown it out.

The second initial idea of ​​marketing is the idea of ​​human needs.

For example, for an elderly person, the need for communication can be compensated by a TV, for young people - a disco. Needs are expressed in objects that can satisfy the need in a way that is inherent in the cultural structure of a particular society or social group.

As society progresses, so do the needs of its members. People are faced with more and more objects that awaken their curiosity, interest and desire. Manufacturers, for their part, take targeted actions to stimulate the desire to own goods. They are trying to form a connection between what they produce and the needs of the people. A product is promoted as a means of satisfying one or a number of specific needs. The marketing agent does not create a need, it already exists.

Retailers often confuse needs with needs. The drill stem manufacturer may think that the customer wants his drill, when in fact the customer wants the well. When another product appears that can drill a well better and cheaper, the consumer will have a new need (for a novelty product), although the need remains the same.

The needs of people are practically unlimited, but a person acquires only those goods that give him the greatest satisfaction at minimal cost, time, information costs.

It is not difficult to list the needs of a particular society at a particular point in time, while the company could plan production volumes for the next year based on the totality of the previous year's demands. Something like this happened with the planning of production in the USSR. However, requests are an unstable indicator. People get bored with the things that are current and look for variety for the sake of variety. In the 90s, down jackets came into fashion, for which people abandoned previously used clothes, then they also abandoned down jackets.

A change in choice may also be the result of a change in prices or income levels. A person usually chooses a product whose combination of properties provides him with the greatest satisfaction for a given price, taking into account his specific needs and resources.

A product is anything that can satisfy a want or need and is offered to the market for the purpose of attracting attention, acquisition, use or consumption.

Goods may not correspond to the needs, may correspond partially and, finally, fully meet the needs, that is, be the so-called ideal product. The more fully the product meets the desires of the consumer, the more successful the manufacturer will achieve. The concept of "goods" is not limited to physical objects. A commodity can be called anything that can provide a service, that is, satisfy a need. In addition to products and services, these can be individuals, places, organizations, activities, and ideas. The consumer decides which entertainment program to watch on television, where to go on vacation, what ideas to support, etc.

Marketing takes place when people decide to satisfy their needs and desires through exchange.

Exchange is the basic concept of marketing as a scientific discipline. To do so, five conditions must be met:

• There must be at least two sides.
• Each side must have something that could be of value to the other side.
• Each party must be able to communicate and deliver its goods.
• Each party must be completely free to accept or reject the proposal of the other party.
• Each party must be confident in the expediency or desirability of dealing with the other party.

These five conditions only create the potential for exchange. Whether the exchange takes place depends on the agreement between the parties on its terms. If the exchange is the basic concept of marketing as a scientific discipline, then the basic unit of measurement in the field of marketing is the transaction.

A transaction is a commercial exchange of value between two parties. For example, the buyer gives the seller some amount and receives the goods he needs. This is a classic cash trade. In a barter transaction, things are exchanged - sunflowers are exchanged for metal, or services - a lawyer makes a will to a doctor in exchange for a medical examination.

The deal is subject to a number of conditions:

• at least two value-significant objects;
• the agreed conditions for its implementation;
• the agreed time of completion;
• agreed venue.

As a rule, the terms of the transaction are supported and protected by law.

From the concept of "transaction" you can go directly to the concept of "market"

Market - a set of existing and potential buyers of goods. Different economic systems have different ways of satisfying people's needs. In primitive social structures self-sufficiency prevails - there are few needs and each person provides himself with everything necessary. In the case of a decentralized exchange, each producer of a certain product seeks and enters into a deal with each consumer of goods of interest to him. The third way is a centralized exchange, which requires the appearance of an additional participant in the exchange - the merchant and a certain place of exchange - the market.

The market can be formed for some particular product or service that has a value significance. For example, the labor market is made up of people willing to offer their labor force in exchange for wages or goods. The money market satisfies human needs, makes it possible to borrow, lend, save money and guarantee its safety.

From the concept of "market" you can return to the basic concept of "marketing". The exchange process requires certain actions. Anyone who wants to sell needs to find buyers, identify their needs, design appropriate products, market them, store them, transport them, negotiate prices, etc. The basis of marketing activities are such processes as product development, research, communication , distribution organization, pricing, service deployment.

Although marketing is generally considered to be the domain of sellers, buyers do it too. Housewives carry out their own marketing when they are looking for the goods they need. In search of a scarce product, the supplier of the company has to look for sellers.

seller's market is a market where sellers have more power and where buyers have to be the most active. Buyer's market- this is a market in which buyers have more power and where sellers should be the most active.

In countries with developed market economies, in the conditions of which marketing was formed, in the early 50s, the supply of goods began to overtake the growth in demand for them, and marketing began to be associated with sellers trying to find buyers. Therefore, marketing problems are usually considered as problems that arise for the seller in the conditions of the buyer's market.

Buying behavior end users- individuals or families who purchase goods and services for personal consumption.

Consumer market- Individuals and families purchasing goods and services for personal consumption.

Marketing mix(or marketing mix) represents the main factors that are the subject of marketing management. It consists of four elements, the so-called " four P"- goods, prices, channels (place) of distribution and promotion (eng. Product, Price, Place, Promotion). There are concepts that bring together five P» - goods, prices, distribution channels, promotion and personnel (eng. Product, Price, Place, Promotion, Personnel).

Types of marketing:

Depending on the state of market demand

• conversion marketing applied when there is no real demand. The task of marketing in this situation is to develop such a plan of action that will contribute to the emergence of demand for the relevant goods or services.
• promotional marketing associated with the availability of goods and services for which there is no demand due to the complete indifference or disinterest of consumers. The promotional marketing plan should take into account the reasons for this indifference and identify measures to overcome it.
• Developmental marketing associated with emerging demand for goods (services).
• Remarketing revives demand in a certain period of extinction of the life cycle of goods or services.
• Synchromarketing used in times of fluctuating demand. For example, seasonal goods.
• Supportive Marketing is used when the level and structure of demand for goods fully correspond to the level and structure of supply.
• Counter marketing used to reduce demand that is perceived as irrational by society or the consumer (e.g. liquor, tobacco products).
• Demarketing used to reduce demand for your product in a situation where demand exceeds supply, and there is no way to increase production. Such results can be achieved, for example, by increasing the price of a product, reducing advertising or promotional efforts. The goal of demarketing (as opposed to counter marketing) is not to destroy demand for a product, but only to reduce it by balancing it with production capacity.

Based on market coverage

• Mass Marketing involves focusing on the widest possible range of consumers without taking into account the differences between them. (I produce what everyone needs) The purpose of the enterprise is to set low prices, as the costs of mass production and promotion are reduced.
• Concentrated (targeted) marketing focusing on a specific segment, trying to satisfy its needs as much as possible (Goods for newlyweds, funeral services). Advantages: maximum satisfaction of needs, used by small companies. Disadvantages: segment may shrink unexpectedly, limited possible growth companies.
• Differentiated Marketing the desire to capture a large part of the market as a whole and at the same time offer several varieties of the same product, which differs in its consumer qualities and can satisfy the needs of many segments (Dairy company, products of different fat content, cheese, cottage cheese, yoghurts). Benefits: satisfaction of needs. Difficult to implement.
• Marketing Management Tasks − Positioning the product in the market. Marketing mix development includes product development, product pricing, product distribution methods, and product promotion.
• Marketing Management Concepts − There are five main approaches that commercial organizations manage their marketing activities: the concept of production improvement, the concept of product improvement, the concept of intensification of commercial efforts, the concept of marketing and the concept of social and ethical marketing. These concepts were formed in different periods of development market economy. The general trend in the development of marketing is a shift in emphasis from production and goods to commercial efforts, to the consumer, and an increasing focus on the problems of the consumer and social ethics.

Production improvement concept (the production concept) assumes that consumers will favor goods that are widely distributed and affordable, and, therefore, management should focus on improving production and increasing the efficiency of the distribution system.

The application of the concept of production improvement is suitable in two situations. The first is when demand for a product exceeds supply. In this case, management should focus on finding ways to increase production. The second is when the cost of goods is too high and it needs to be reduced, which requires an increase in productivity (but at the same time, part of the products that will be in warehouses due to the fact that the cost of production is too high and, therefore, the demand for it is not high, will have to be sold at discounted prices, which may have a negative impact on the company involved in the production and / or sale of this product).

Product Improvement Concept (product concept) assumes that consumers will be interested in products that offer the highest quality, best performance and properties, and, therefore, the organization should focus its energy on continuous product improvement.

The use of this concept may provide certain benefits to the company only in the short term, but in general, the concept of product improvement leads to "marketing myopia" . Giving all the attention this species its products, the seller may lose sight of the needs of consumers. For example, in the United States, the railroads believed that consumers needed trains, not a means of transport, and did not notice the threat from airlines and motor vehicles. Slide rule makers thought engineers needed rulers, not the ability to calculate, and missed the threat posed by pocket calculators.

The concept of intensifying commercial efforts (sales) (selling concept) assumes that consumers will not buy a firm's products in sufficient quantities if the firm does not make sufficient marketing and promotional efforts.

According to this concept, various methods have been developed to identify potential consumers and the so-called “hard sale” of goods to them, when the buyer is actively influenced, actually forcing them to make a purchase.

Marketing concept (marketing concept) proceeds from the fact that the key to achieving the goals of the organization is to determine the needs and requirements of conditional markets and provide the desired satisfaction in a more efficient and more productive way than competitors. The object of attention in the concept of marketing is not the product, but the company's customers with their needs and requirements. At the same time, the company receives profits by creating and maintaining customer satisfaction.

Comparing the last two concepts, it can also be noted that the concept of intensifying commercial efforts, or, as it is also called, the "sales concept" is typical for the Russian market as a whole, and the marketing concept is used extremely rarely, in particular, in the construction of luxury housing.

The concept of socially ethical marketing (social marketing) proceeds from the fact that the task of the company is to establish the needs, needs and interests of target markets and provide the desired satisfaction in a more efficient and more productive (than competitors) ways while maintaining and strengthening the well-being of the consumer and society as a whole.

This concept was formed relatively recently, after it was concluded that the concept of pure marketing was insufficient from the standpoint of environmental protection, lack of natural resources and a number of other social and ethical problems. Ultimately, the concept of pure marketing does not address the problem of possible conflicts between the needs of the buyer and his long-term well-being. The concept of socially ethical marketing requires a balance of three factors: the company's profits, purchasing needs and the interests of society.

The concept of holistic (holistic) marketing is based on the planning, development and implementation of marketing programs, processes and activities, taking into account their breadth and interdependence. Holistic marketing recognizes that everything matters in marketing and that an extended, integrated approach is often needed. Holistic marketing has four components: relationship marketing, integrated marketing, internal marketing, and socially responsible marketing. Thus, holistic marketing is an approach that attempts to recognize and balance the various competencies and complexities of marketing activities.

 

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