Current economic activity of the enterprise. The concept of economic activity of the enterprise, its economic legal relations, their characteristics. The essence of contracts of sale, delivery. Organization of contract work at the enterprise

Analysis of financial economic activity plays an important role in increasing economic efficiency activities of the organization, in its management, in strengthening its financial condition. It is an economic science that studies the economics of organizations, their activities in terms of assessing their work on the implementation of business plans, assessing their property and financial condition and in order to identify untapped reserves to improve the efficiency of organizations.

Acceptance of justified, optimal ones is impossible without a preliminary comprehensive, in-depth economic analysis of the organization's activities.

The results of the economic analysis carried out are used to establish reasonable planning targets. The indicators of business plans are set on the basis of actually achieved indicators, analyzed in terms of opportunities for their improvement. The same applies to regulation. The norms and standards are determined on the basis of the previously existing ones, analyzed from the point of view of the possibilities for their optimization. For example, the norms for the consumption of materials for the manufacture of products should be established taking into account the need to reduce them without compromising the quality and competitiveness of products. Consequently, the analysis of economic activity contributes to the establishment of reasonable values ​​of planned indicators and various standards.

Economic analysis helps to improve the efficiency of organizations, the most rational and efficient use fixed assets, material, labor and financial resources, the elimination of unnecessary costs and losses, and, consequently, the implementation of the savings regime. The immutable law of managing is to achieve the greatest results when lowest cost. critical role this is played by economic analysis, which makes it possible, by eliminating the causes of excessive costs, to minimize and, consequently, maximize the value obtained.

The role of the analysis of economic activity in strengthening the financial condition of organizations is great. The analysis allows you to establish the presence or absence of financial difficulties in the organization, identify their causes and outline measures to eliminate these causes. The analysis also makes it possible to ascertain the degree of solvency and liquidity of the organization and predict the possible bankruptcy of the organization in the future. When analyzing the financial results of the organization's activities, the causes of losses are established, ways to eliminate these causes are outlined, the influence of individual factors on the amount of profit is studied, recommendations are made to maximize profits by using the identified reserves of its growth, and ways to use them are outlined.

The relationship of economic analysis (analysis of economic activity) with other sciences

First of all, the analysis of financial and economic activities is associated with. Among all those used in conducting, the most important place (more than 70 percent) is occupied by information provided by accounting and. Accounting forms the main indicators of the organization's activities and its financial condition (liquidity, etc.).

The analysis of economic activity is also associated with statistical accounting (). information provided by statistical accounting and reporting is used in the analysis of the organization's activities. In addition, a number of statistical research methods are used in economic analysis. Economic analysis is interconnected with audit.

auditors check the correctness and validity of the organization's business plans, which, along with accounting data, are an important source of information for economic analysis. Further, the auditors carry out a documentary check of the organization's activities, which is very important to ensure the reliability of the information used in the economic analysis. Auditors also analyze the profit, profitability and financial condition of the organization. Here audit comes into close interaction with economic analysis.

The analysis of economic activity is also associated with intra-economic planning.

The analysis of economic activity is closely connected with mathematics. When conducting research is widely used.

Economic analysis is also closely connected with the economy of individual sectors of the national economy, as well as with the economy of individual industries (engineering, metallurgy, chemical industry, etc.).

The analysis of economic activity is also interconnected with such sciences as , . In the process of conducting economic analysis, it is necessary to take into account the formation and use of cash flows, the features of the functioning of both own and borrowed funds.

Economic analysis is very closely related to the management of organizations. Strictly speaking, the analysis of the activities of organizations is carried out with the aim of implementing, on the basis of its results, the development and adoption of optimal management decisions, providing an increase in the efficiency of the organization. Thus, economic analysis contributes to the organization of the most rational and efficient management system.

In addition to the specific economic sciences economic analysis is certainly related to. The latter sets out the most important economic categories, which serves as a methodological basis for economic analysis.

The objectives of the analysis of financial and economic activities

In the process of conducting economic analysis, identifying an increase in the efficiency of organizations and ways of mobilization, that is, the use of identified reserves. These reserves are the basis for the development of organizational and technical measures that must be carried out to activate the identified reserves. The developed measures, being optimal management decisions, make it possible to effectively manage the activities of the objects of analysis. Therefore, the analysis of the economic activity of organizations can be considered as one of the most important functions of management or, as the main method of substantiating decisions on the management of organizations. In the conditions of market relations in the economy, the analysis of economic activity is designed to ensure high profitability and competitiveness of organizations both in the short and in the longer term.

The analysis of economic activity, which arose as an analysis of the balance sheet, as balance science, continues to consider the analysis of the financial condition of the organization according to the balance sheet as the main direction of research (using, of course, other sources of information). In the context of the transition to market relations in the economy, the role of analyzing the financial condition of the organization is significantly increasing, although, of course, the importance of analyzing other aspects of their work is not diminished.

Methods of analysis of economic activity

The method of analysis of economic activity includes a whole system of methods and techniques. enabling scientific research economic phenomena and processes that make up the economic activity of the organization. Moreover, any of the methods and techniques used in economic analysis can be called a method in the narrow sense of the word, as a synonym for the concepts of "method" and "reception". The analysis of economic activity also uses the methods and techniques characteristic of other sciences, especially statistics and mathematics.

Analysis method is a set of methods and techniques that provide a systematic, comprehensive study of the influence of individual factors on changes in economic indicators and the identification of reserves for improving the activities of organizations.

The method of analyzing economic activity as a way of studying the subject of this science is characterized by the following features:

1. Use of tasks (subject to their validity), as well as normative values individual indicators as the main criterion for assessing the activities of organizations, and their financial condition;
2. The transition from assessing the organization's activities based on the overall results of the implementation of business plans to detailing these results by spatial and temporal characteristics;
3. calculation of the influence of individual factors on economic indicators (where possible);
4. Comparison of indicators of this organization with indicators of other organizations;
5. Integrated use of all available sources of economic information;
6. Generalization of the results of the conducted economic analysis and a summary calculation of the identified reserves for improving the organization's activities.

In the process of conducting the analysis of economic activity, a large number of special methods and techniques are used, in which the systemic, complex nature of the analysis is manifested. Systemic nature of economic analysis It manifests itself in the fact that all economic phenomena and processes that make up the activity of the organization are considered as certain aggregates consisting of separate components, interconnected and in general with the system, which is the economic activity of the organization. When conducting an analysis, the relationship between the individual components of these aggregates, as well as these parts and the aggregate as a whole, and finally, between individual aggregates and the activities of the organization as a whole, is studied. The latter is considered as a system, and all of its listed components are considered as subsystems of various levels. For example, an organization as a system includes a number of workshops, i.e. subsystems, which are aggregates consisting of individual production sites and jobs, that is, subsystems of the second and higher orders. Economic analysis studies the interconnections of the system and subsystems of various levels, as well as the latter among themselves.

Analysis and evaluation of business performance

Analysis of the financial and economic activities of the enterprise makes it possible to evaluate the effectiveness of the business, that is, to establish the degree of efficiency of functioning this enterprise.

The main principle of economic efficiency is to achieve the greatest results at the lowest cost. If we detail this provision, then we can say that the effective activity of the enterprise takes place while minimizing the cost of manufacturing a unit of production in conditions of strict adherence to technology and production and ensuring high quality and.

The most general performance indicators are profitability, . There are private indicators that characterize the effectiveness of certain aspects of the functioning of the enterprise.

These indicators include:

• efficiency of use of production resources at the disposal of the organization:
  • fixed production assets (here the indicators are , );
  • (indicators - personnel profitability, );
  • (indicators - , profit per one ruble of material costs);
• efficiency investment activity organizations (indicators - payback period of capital investments, profit per one ruble of capital investments);
• efficient use of the organization's assets (indicators - turnover current assets, profit per one ruble of the value of assets, including current and non-current assets, etc.);
• efficiency of capital use (indicators - net profit per share, dividends per share, etc.)

Actually achieved private performance indicators are compared with planned indicators, with data for previous reporting periods, as well as with indicators of other organizations.

We present the initial data for analysis in the following table:

Private performance indicators of the financial and economic activities of the enterprise

Indicators characterizing certain aspects of the financial and economic activity of the enterprise have improved. Thus, capital productivity, labor productivity and material productivity have increased, therefore, the use of all types of production resources at the disposal of the organization has improved. The payback period for capital investments has been reduced. Turnover accelerated working capital by increasing the efficiency of their use. Finally, there is an increase in the amount of dividends paid to shareholders per share.

All these changes, which took place compared with the previous period, indicate an increase in the efficiency of the enterprise.

As a generalizing indicator of the effectiveness of the financial and economic activities of the enterprise, we use the level as the ratio of net profit to the sum of fixed and circulating production assets. This indicator combines a number of private performance indicators. Therefore, the change in the level of profitability reflects the dynamics of the efficiency of all aspects of the organization's activities. In our example, the level of profitability in the previous year was 21 percent, and in the reporting year 22.8%. Consequently, an increase in the level of profitability by 1.8 points indicates an increase in business efficiency, which is expressed in a comprehensive intensification of the financial and economic activities of the enterprise.

The level of profitability can be considered as a generalizing, integral indicator of business performance. Profitability expresses a measure of profitability, the profitability of the enterprise. Profitability is a relative indicator; it is much less than the absolute indicator of profit, is subject to the influence of inflationary processes and therefore more accurately shows the effectiveness of the organization. Profitability characterizes the profit received by the enterprise from each ruble of funds invested in the formation of assets. In addition to the considered profitability indicator, there are others that are covered in detail in the article “Profit and Profitability Analysis” of this site.

The effectiveness of the functioning of the organization is influenced by a large number of factors different levels. These factors are:

• general economic factors. These include: trends and patterns of economic development, achievements of scientific and technological progress, tax, investment, depreciation policy of the state, etc.
• natural and geographical factors: the location of the organization, the climatic features of the area, etc.
• Regional factors: the economic potential of the region, investment policy in this region, etc.
• industry factors: the place of this industry in the national economic complex, market conditions in this industry, etc.
• factors determined by the functioning of the analyzed organization - the degree of use of production resources, compliance with the regime of savings in the costs of production and sale of products, the rationality of the organization of supply and marketing activities, investment and pricing policy, the most complete identification and use of on-farm reserves, etc.

It is very important to improve the efficiency of the functioning of the enterprise is to improve the use of production resources. Any of the indicators we have named, reflecting their use ( , ) is a synthetic, generalizing indicator, which is influenced by more detailed indicators (factors). In turn, each of these two factors is influenced by even more detailed factors. Consequently, any of the generalizing indicators of the use of production resources (for example, capital productivity) characterizes the effectiveness of their use only in general.

In order to reveal the true effectiveness, it is necessary to carry out more detailed of these indicators.

The main private indicators characterizing the efficiency of the enterprise should be considered the return on assets, labor productivity, material efficiency and turnover of working capital. At the same time, the latter indicator, in comparison with the previous ones, is more general, directly reaching such performance indicators as profitability, profitability, and profitability. The faster the turnover of working capital, the more efficiently the organization functions and the greater the amount of profit received and the higher the level of profitability.

The acceleration of turnover characterizes the improvement of both the production and economic aspects of the organization's activities.

So, the main indicators reflecting the effectiveness of the organization are profitability, profitability, profitability level.

In addition, there is a system of private indicators that characterize the effectiveness of various aspects of the functioning of the organization. Among the private indicators, the most important is the turnover of working capital.

A systematic approach to the analysis of financial and economic activities

Systems approach to the analysis of the financial and economic activities of the enterprise suggests her study as a certain totality, as a single system. The system approach also assumes that an enterprise or other analyzed object should include a system of various elements that are in certain relationships with each other, as well as with other systems. Consequently, the analysis of these elements that make up the system should be carried out taking into account both intrasystem and external relations.

Thus, any system (in this case, the analyzed organization or another object of analysis) consists of a number of interconnected subsystems. At the same time, the same system, as an integral part, as a subsystem, is included in another system of a higher level, where the first system is interconnected and interacts with other subsystems. For example, the analyzed organization as a system includes a number of workshops and management services (subsystems). At the same time, this organization, as a subsystem, is part of some branch of the national economy or industry, i.e. systems of a higher level, where it interacts with other subsystems (other organizations included in this system), as well as with subsystems of other systems, i.e. with organizations in other industries. Thus, the analysis of the activities of individual structural divisions of the organization, as well as individual aspects of the latter's activity (supply and marketing, production, financial, investment, etc.) should not be carried out in isolation, but taking into account the relationships that exist in the analyzed system.

Under these conditions, economic analysis must, of course, be systemic, complex and multifaceted.

In the economic literature, the concepts of " system analysis" and " complex analysis". These categories are closely related. In many respects, systemic and complex analysis are synonymous concepts. However, there are also differences between them. System approach to economic analysis involves an interconnected consideration of the functioning of individual structural divisions of the organization, the organization as a whole, and their interaction with external environment, that is, with other systems. Along with this, a systematic approach means an interconnected consideration of various aspects of the activity of the analyzed organization (supply and marketing, production, financial, investment, socio-economic, economic-environmental, etc.). The systematic analysis is a broader concept compared to its complexity. Complexity includes the study of individual aspects of the organization's activities in their unity and interconnection. As a result, complex analysis should be considered as one of the fundamental parts of system analysis. The generality of the complexity and consistency of the analysis of financial and economic activities is reflected in the unity of the study of various aspects of the activities of a given organization, as well as in the interconnected study of the activities of the organization as a whole and its individual divisions, and, in addition, in the application of a common set of economic indicators, and, finally, in complex use of all types of information support for economic analysis.

Stages of analysis of the financial and economic activities of the enterprise

In the process of conducting a systematic, comprehensive analysis of the financial and economic activities of an enterprise, the following stages can be distinguished. At the first stage the analyzed system should be divided into separate subsystems. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that in each individual case, the main subsystems may be different, or the same, but having far from identical content. So, in an organization that manufactures industrial products, the most important subsystem will be its production activity, which is not available from the trading organization. Organizations providing services to the population have a so-called production activity, which differs sharply in its essence from the production activity of industrial organizations.

Thus, all the functions performed by this organization are performed through the activities of its individual subsystems, which are identified at the first stage of a systemic, comprehensive analysis.

At the second stage a system of economic indicators is being developed, which reflects the functioning of both individual subsystems of a given organization, that is, the system, and the organization as a whole. At the same stage, criteria for evaluating the values ​​of these economic indicators are developed based on the use of their normative and critical values. And finally, at the third stage of the implementation of a systemic, comprehensive analysis, the relationship between the functioning of individual subsystems of a given organization and the organization as a whole is identified, the definition of economic indicators that express these relationships are under their influence. So, for example, they analyze how the functioning of the department for labor and social issues this organization will affect the value of the cost of manufactured products, or how the investment activity of the organization affected the amount of the balance sheet profit received by it.

Systems approach to economic analysis enables the most complete and objective study of the functioning of this organization.

At the same time, one should take into account the materiality, significance of each type of identified relationships, the share of their influence on the total value of the change in the economic indicator. Subject to this condition, a systematic approach to economic analysis provides opportunities for the development and implementation of optimal management decisions.

When conducting a systematic, comprehensive analysis, it is necessary to take into account that economic and political factors are interrelated and have a joint impact on the activities of any organization and on its result. Political decisions taken by the legislative authorities must necessarily be in accordance with the legislative acts regulating the development of the economy. True, at the micro level, that is, at the level of individual organizations, it is very problematic to give a reasonable assessment of the influence of political factors on the performance of an organization, to measure their influence. As for the macro level, that is, the national economic aspect of the functioning of the economy, here it seems more realistic to indicate the influence of political factors.

Along with the unity of economic and political factors, when conducting a system analysis, it is also necessary to take into account the interconnectedness of economic and social factors. At present, the achievement of the optimal level of economic indicators is largely determined by the implementation of measures to improve the socio-cultural level of the organization's employees and improve their quality of life. In the process of conducting the analysis, it is necessary to study the degree of implementation of plans for socio-economic indicators and their relationship with other indicators of the activities of organizations.

When conducting a systematic, comprehensive economic analysis, one should also take into account unity of economic and environmental factors . In modern conditions of the activity of enterprises, the environmental side of this activity has become very important. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the costs of implementing environmental protection measures cannot be considered only from the standpoint of momentary benefits, since the biological damage caused to nature by the activities of metallurgical, chemical, food and other organizations may become irreversible, irreplaceable in the future. Therefore, in the process of analysis, it is necessary to check how the plans for the construction of treatment facilities, for the transition to waste-free production technologies, for beneficial use or implementation of planned returnable waste. It is also necessary to calculate the reasonable values ​​of damage caused to the natural environment by the activities of this organization and its individual structural divisions. The environmental activities of an organization and its subdivisions should be analyzed in conjunction with other aspects of its activities, with the implementation of plans and the dynamics of the main economic indicators. At the same time, cost savings for environmental protection measures, in cases where it is caused by incomplete implementation of plans for these measures, and not by more economical use of material, labor and financial resources, should be recognized as unjustified.

Further, when conducting a systematic, comprehensive analysis, it is necessary to take into account that it is possible to obtain a holistic view of the organization's activities only as a result of studying all aspects of its activities (and the activities of its structural divisions), taking into account the relationships between them, as well as their interaction with external environment. Thus, in carrying out the analysis, we split the integral concept - the activity of the organization - into separate components; then, in order to verify the objectivity of analytical calculations, we carry out an algebraic addition of the results of the analysis, that is, individual parts, which together should form a complete picture of the activities of this organization.

The systemic and complex nature of the analysis of financial and economic activities is reflected in the fact that in the process of its implementation, a certain system of economic indicators is created and directly applied that characterizes the activities of the enterprise, its individual aspects, the relationship between them.

Finally, the systemic and complex nature of economic analysis finds its expression in the fact that in the process of its implementation there is a complex use of the entire set of information sources.

Conclusion

So, the main content of the system approach in economic analysis is to study the influence of the entire system of factors on economic indicators based on the intra-economic and external relations of these factors and indicators. At the same time, the analyzed organization, that is, a certain system, is divided into a number of subsystems, which are separate structural divisions and separate aspects of the organization's activities. In the course of the analysis, the complex use of the entire system of sources of economic information is carried out.

Factors to improve the efficiency of the organization

Classification of factors and reserves to improve the efficiency of the organization's economic activities

The processes that make up the financial and economic activities of the enterprise are interconnected. In this case, the connection can be direct, direct, or indirect, mediated.

The financial and economic activities of the enterprise, its effectiveness are reflected in certain. The latter can be generalized, that is, synthetic, as well as detailed, analytical.

All indicators expressing the financial and economic activities of the organization are interconnected. Any indicator, a change in its value, is influenced by certain reasons, which are usually called factors. So, for example, the volume of sales (sales) is influenced by two main factors (they can be called factors of the first order): the volume of output of marketable products and the change during the reporting period of the balance of unsold products. In turn, the values ​​of these factors are influenced by second-order factors, that is, more detailed factors. For example, three main groups of factors influence the value of output: factors related to the availability and use of labor resources, factors associated with the availability and use of fixed assets, factors associated with the availability and use of material resources.

In the process of analyzing the activities of the organization, even more detailed factors of the third, fourth, and higher orders can be distinguished.

Any economic indicator can be a factor influencing another, more general indicator. In this case, the first indicator is called the factor indicator.

Studying the influence of individual factors on economic performance is called factor analysis. Main varieties factor analysis are deterministic analysis and stochastic analysis.

See further:, and reserves for increasing the efficiency of the financial and economic activities of the enterprise

In the conditions of market relations, the enterprise is the main link in the entire economy, since it is at this level that the products needed by society are created and the necessary services are provided.

An enterprise is an independent, organizationally separate economic entity in the production sphere of the national economy that manufactures and sells products, performs industrial work or provides paid services.

The enterprise has a specific name - plant, factory, combine, mine, workshop, etc.

Any enterprise is a legal entity, has a complete accounting and reporting system, an independent balance sheet, settlement and other accounts, a seal with its own name and a trademark (brand).

The main goal (mission) of the creation and functioning of the enterprise is to obtain the maximum possible profit through the sale of manufactured products (work performed, services rendered) to consumers, on the basis of which social and economic needs are satisfied. labor collective and owners of the means of production.

On the basis of the general mission of the enterprise, general company goals are formed and set, which are determined by the interests of the owner, the amount of capital, the situation within the enterprise, the external environment and must meet the following requirements: to be specific and measurable, time-oriented, accessible and mutually supported.

Each enterprise is a complex production and economic system with multifaceted activities. The most clearly distinguished areas that should be attributed to the main ones are:

1) comprehensive market research (marketing activities);

2) innovative activity(research and development work, the introduction of technological, organizational, managerial and other innovations in production);

3) production activities (manufacturing of products, performance of work and provision of services, development of a range and assortment adequate to market demand);

4) commercial activity enterprises in the market (organization and promotion of sales of manufactured products, services, effective advertising);

5) material and technical support of production (supply of raw materials, materials, components, provision of all types of energy, machinery, equipment, containers, etc.);

6) economic activity of the enterprise (all types of planning, pricing, accounting and reporting, organization and remuneration of labor, analysis of economic activity, etc.);

7) after-sales service for production, technical and consumer products (commissioning, warranty service, provision of spare parts for repairs, etc.);

8) social activity(maintaining the working and living conditions of the workforce at an appropriate level, creating the social infrastructure of the enterprise, including its own residential buildings, canteens, medical and recreational and preschool institutions, vocational schools, etc.)

The activities of the enterprise are regulated by numerous legal acts, the main of which are: the Civil Code of the Russian Federation on the enterprise, the charter of the enterprise and the collective agreement that regulates the relations of the labor collective with the administration of the enterprise.

The Civil Code of the Russian Federation on an enterprise determines the procedure for the creation, registration, liquidation and reorganization of an enterprise.

According to the existing legislation, an enterprise can be created by the owner or by decision of the labor collective; as a result of the forced division of another enterprise in accordance with antitrust laws; as a result of separation from the operating enterprise of one or more structural units, as well as in other cases.

The company is included in State Register Russia from the date of its registration. To implement this procedure, an application, a decision of the founder on the creation, a charter and other documents according to the list determined by the Government of the Russian Federation are required.

The liquidation and reorganization of the enterprise are carried out by the decision of the owner and with the participation of the labor collective, or by the decision of the court or arbitration, as well as in the following cases: it is declared bankrupt; if a decision has been made to ban the activity of the enterprise; if the constituent documents are declared invalid by a court decision and in other cases.

The management of the enterprise is carried out in accordance with the charter on the basis of a combination of the rights of the owner and the principles of self-government of the labor collective. The owner may delegate his rights to manage the enterprise to the council of the enterprise or another body provided for by the charter of the enterprise and representing the interests of the owner and the labor collective.

The property of the enterprise consists of fixed assets and working capital, as well as other values, the value of which is reflected in the balance sheet of the enterprise. The sources of its formation are:

– monetary and material contributions of the founders;

– income from main and other activities;

- income from valuable papers; loans from banks and other creditors;

– capital investments and subsidies from the budgets;

- proceeds from the denationalization and privatization of property;

- gratuitous or charitable contributions from enterprises, organizations and citizens and other sources.

The enterprise uses and disposes of property at its own discretion: sells, transfers free of charge, exchanges or leases.

According to the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, a generalizing indicator of the financial results of the economic activity of an enterprise is profit (income), the procedure for using which is determined by the owner.

The enterprise independently determines the wage fund without limiting its growth by state bodies, the minimum wage for employees (cannot be less than the poverty line established by Russian legislation), establishes the forms, systems and amounts of wages and other types of income for employees.

The enterprise independently carries out activity planning and determines development prospects based on the demand for manufactured products. The plans are based on contracts concluded with consumers of products, works, services, and suppliers of material and technical resources.

The company sells its products at prices and tariffs set independently or on a contractual basis. In settlements with foreign partners, contract prices are applied in accordance with the conditions and prices of the world market.

Questions social development, including the improvement of working conditions, life and health of members of the labor collective and their families, are decided by the labor collective with the participation of the owner in accordance with the charter of the enterprise, collective agreement and legislative acts of Russia.

The state guarantees the observance of the rights and legitimate interests enterprises: provides him with equal legal and economic conditions for managing, regardless of the form of ownership; contributes to the development of the market and regulates it with the help of economic laws and incentives, implements antitrust measures; provides preferential conditions for enterprises that introduce advanced technologies and create new jobs.

The enterprise is responsible for violation of contractual obligations, credit and settlement and tax discipline, product quality requirements, and environmental pollution. The enterprise must ensure the safety of production, sanitary and hygienic standards and requirements for protecting the health of its employees, the public and consumers of products.

Control over certain aspects of the enterprise's activities is carried out by: the state tax administration, the tax police and state bodies that are entrusted with the supervision of production safety, labor, fire and environmental safety, and other bodies determined by the legislation of Russia.

The company operates on the basis of the Charter, which is approved by the owner of the property, and for state enterprises- also with the participation of the labor collective.

The charter of the enterprise defines: the owner and full name of the enterprise, its location, the subject and objectives of the activity, the management bodies and the procedure for their formation, the competence and powers of the labor collective and its elected bodies, the procedure for the formation of property, the conditions for reorganization and termination of the enterprise.

The articles of association may include the following provisions: labor relations; on the powers, procedure for the creation and structure of the enterprise council; about the trademark, etc.

2 The essence of contracts of sale, delivery. Organization of contract work at the enterprise

A contract of sale is an agreement under which one party (seller) undertakes to transfer a thing (goods) into the ownership of the other party (buyer), and the buyer undertakes to accept this product and pay a certain amount of money (price) for it (clause 1. article 454 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). The contract of sale is a general contractual structure (paragraph 1 of Chapter 30 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). Chapter 30 also distinguishes other types of sale and purchase agreement: retail sale and purchase agreement, supply agreement, supply agreement for state or municipal needs, contracting agreement, energy supply agreement, real estate sale agreement, enterprise sale agreement.

The subject of the contract is a thing (goods). Thus, this contractual model is focused, first of all, on paid alienation of material objects into the real right. At the same time, the construction of the sale and purchase agreement can also be used to regulate relations for the alienation of property rights (clause 4, article 454 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). Alienation of real rights under a contract of sale is obviously impossible due to the fact that this contradicts the nature of these rights (clause 4, article 454 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). One of the exceptions may be the alienation of a share in the right of common ownership. The only essential condition of the contract of sale in the Russian Federation is its subject matter. Agreeing on a condition on an item means establishing the name and quantity of the item. The price is not an essential condition, and if it is not specified in the contract, its determination takes place according to the rules of Art. 424 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation (similar goods in similar conditions).

Signs of a sale and purchase agreement - consensual, bilateral, reimbursable, mutually binding, non-fiduciary, non-public, mutually agreed, unlimited.

A supply contract is an agreement between the parties, according to which the supplier - seller, carrying out entrepreneurial activities, undertakes to transfer, within the stipulated period or terms, the goods produced or purchased by him to the buyer for use in entrepreneurial activity or for other purposes.

The agreement is a consensual, compensated, bilateral agreement. This agreement has a number of distinctive features. First, it should be noted that there is a peculiarity in the subject composition of this agreement, which lies in the fact that only a person engaged in entrepreneurial activity can act as a supplier: an individual entrepreneur or a commercial organization. Secondly, one of the essential conditions of the supply contract is the obligation of the supplier to transfer the goods within the stipulated time or periods. Therefore, the supply contract assumes both a one-time wholesale goods on time, as well as the wholesale sale of goods in separate lots for a long time (conditional terms), as well as the transfer of a certain item within a specified period. Thirdly, it is essential for what purpose the buyer purchases goods from the supplier, because under the supply agreement the buyer acquires goods for use in business activities (for industrial processing and consumption, for subsequent sale and other professional activity) or for activities not related to personal, family, home use of the goods.

The parties to the supply agreement are the supplier and the buyer. On the side of the supplier, as a rule, are commercial organizations and individual entrepreneurs, and the buyers are any persons, but most often legal entities and individual entrepreneurs.

The supply contract is writing. It is concluded in such a way as the exchange of documents between the parties. If the parties to the contract are two citizens (entrepreneurs), and the total amount of goods delivered does not exceed 1,000 rubles, then the contract may be concluded orally.

The purpose for which the contract is concluded is the subject of the transaction, the mutual rights and obligations of the parties - its conditions, the totality of the conditions - its content.

The role of the contract as a universal regulator of economic relations, a comprehensive tool for commerce and economic activity is well known. On the other hand, an agreement between specific parties makes it possible to capture and streamline their most subtle relationships, relieving the legislator of this overwhelming and unnecessary function.

That's why Civil Code gives only general characteristics contracts and a list of basic conditions, leaving the parties the opportunity to arbitrarily specify, expand the provisions included in each specific contract. Corporate regulations should provide the same freedom.

The law gives organizations the right to independently choose counterparties and perform actions on their own behalf that have legal force in the development and implementation of obligations under contracts.

Contractual work at the enterprise refers to activities that are usually carried out in two cycles:

– conclusion of contracts (preparation, execution, agreement of conditions with contractors);

- organization of the execution of contracts (operational measures, accounting, control, evaluation of progress and results).

This work is a kind legal activity, since it is based on legal norms (centralized and corporate), and the result of its first cycle - the contract - itself becomes a legally binding document.

If an enterprise acts as a supplier (seller, executor), then, as a rule, the planning department or sales department, or a specially formed contractual department, is responsible for the execution and implementation of the contract. If the enterprise is a buyer (customer), then work, depending on the subject of the contract, is carried out in the services responsible for logistics, organization of capital construction, equipment repair, etc.

The two named types of contractual work must correspond: the content of corporate acts, the specialization of lawyers, the distribution of duties between employees of the legal department of the enterprise. Attention should be paid to the stage of contract work.

The range of issues addressed in the process of concluding and executing contracts is specific to each enterprise, but this process itself is uniform in the sense that the following typical stages are inherent in it.

1. Preparation for the conclusion of contracts. Stages: pre-contractual contacts with possible contractors; development of basic conditions (signing of preliminary contracts - agreements of intent); preparation of forms of contractual documentation; drawing up a contractual campaign plan (with a large number of potential counterparties).

2. Evaluation of the grounds for concluding contracts. It is based mainly on the analysis of the production and commercial situation in which the enterprise and each of the potential counterparties are located. The decision to refuse to conclude an agreement in the presence of a preliminary agreement must be argued, and before the counterparty takes actions related to material costs.

3. Registration of contracts. Stages: development of projects; settlement of disputes; specification of the content of concluded contracts; their modification or termination.

Projects are developed, as a rule, by the service responsible for conducting contractual work, and, together with a protocol of disagreements or other similar documentation, are transferred for comprehensive verification to the departments involved in the production, logistics, financial and legal support of the enterprise. The traditional form of checking the compliance of projects with the interests and capabilities of the enterprise is sighting.

4. Bringing the content of the contracts to the executors. It is possible in the following forms: transfer of contractual documentation to interested parties, which is usually certified by their signature; transfer of copies or extracts of these documents to divisions of the enterprise; publication of systematized information on the main terms of contracts (inventories of orders, supply plans, etc.).

5. Control of execution. It aims to keep the work in the parameters that meet the terms of the contracts, for which the data on the progress of the work is compared with the stipulated indicators. Control can be selective, continuous, periodic, permanent.

6. Evaluation of the results of the execution of contracts. It consists of: conclusions about success (failure) by comparing the actually achieved indicators with the goals of transactions; analysis of the results for the possibility of applying incentives or sanctions to the perpetrators; development of measures that can improve the execution of contracts.

The most difficult issue is, perhaps, the question of the normative regulation of contractual work.

A feature of contract work is that it is based on local regulations, that is, those that are adopted directly by the enterprises themselves. These acts without repeating general provisions about the agreements contained in current legislation, allow:

- take into account the specific features and working conditions of the enterprise, and are designed to determine the list and functions of the enterprise's divisions that conduct contractual work;

- establish the content of the actions performed in this case, the procedure and terms for their implementation;

- to fix the schemes for the execution of contractual documentation and the forms of accounting for the execution of contracts;

– determine incentives for the proper execution of contracts and the responsibility of structural units and officials for breach of contractual obligations;

- take responsibility specific workers their rights and obligations.

It should be borne in mind that local regulations can be both complex in nature (for example, the Regulation on the conduct of contractual work, the Instruction on the procedure for conducting contractual work), and reflect only part of the stages (for example, the Instruction on the procedure for filing claims and lawsuits for non-fulfillment of obligations ). However, there is a limit beyond which rationing loses its meaning - excessive detailing gives rise to "dead" rules. Corporate acts regulating the conduct of contractual work are approved by the head of the enterprise.

When developing instructions (provisions), one should neither reproduce nor re-systematize the norms of legislation. This leads, firstly, to a separation of the created acts from the actual structuring of contractual work at the enterprise, and secondly, to a distortion of the meaning of the law. Such corporate acts should not provide for the rules governing relations with counterparties, since this is the subject of contractual regulation with them.

Forms (forms) of contractual documentation are developed as annexes to local regulations. The content of these forms reflects the main details and conditions of the future contract. To a certain extent, they facilitate and speed up the process of concluding contracts. Therefore, it is very important to ensure their timely development. At the same time, it should be pointed out that the forms of contractual documentation are of an auxiliary nature. In the process of concluding contracts and agreeing on its terms, the parties can make changes and additions to them: exclude certain clauses from them, include others, etc.

Particular attention should be paid to the role of the legal service in the contract work at the enterprise. The legal service of the enterprise summarizes and analyzes the contractual practice. This is necessary to identify shortcomings in the organization of the contractual campaign and develop measures to eliminate and prevent them. The conclusions drawn as a result of the generalization are used when concluding new contracts.

It is important to emphasize that the participation of legal advisers in contract work is not episodic, but permanent. It is not limited only to familiarizing employees involved in contractual work with the relevant regulations. Lawyers organize and actively participate both in the preparation of local regulations and all contractual documentation. The legal adviser is obliged to review and endorse all the legal acts of the enterprise, express his comments and suggestions on them so that these acts express the most optimal solution based on knowledge of the specific economic situation and current legislation.

When checking projects legal documents or participating in the preparation of orders, instructions, regulations, contracts and other legal documentation on contractual matters, the legal service should pay attention to ensuring that they do not establish unlawful terms and conditions. Only after such a check, the drafts of these documents can be endorsed by the legal service.

The legal service should participate in determining the structure of the contractual relations of the enterprise based on the need to establish more rational contractual relations. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that the structure of contractual relations may depend on the direction of specialization characteristic of a given enterprise, organizational building(the presence of independent enterprises, production units in the composition of the production association) and the distribution of functions between its business units, from the technological features of production, etc.

Having received the draft contract for verification, the legal adviser must see whether it is correctly drawn up in substance and in form. When approving a draft agreement, one should, in addition, pay attention to the reflection in it of all essential conditions, the completeness and clarity of the presentation of the text of the agreement, which does not allow for different interpretations.

In cases where the division of the enterprise that received the draft contract has comments on its terms, the contract is drawn up with a protocol of disagreements. The legal department, if it did not participate in the preparation of the protocol of disagreements, must, when approving the draft agreement, check the legality and correctness of the preparation of the protocol of disagreements. Considering the comments of the counterparty, set out by him in the protocol of disagreements, the legal department should pay attention to the legality and motivation of the proposed comments, as well as objections to them from the interested departments of the enterprise.

The effectiveness of contractual work to a large extent depends on the accounting and control of the execution of business contracts.

Properly organized accounting is an important element of the system of measures to prevent violations of obligations. It should ensure the creation of a documentary base for analyzing the reasons for non-fulfillment of contractual obligations, taking measures to prevent them and eliminate them, contribute to the correct consideration of claims and lawsuits of counterparties, ensure the reliability of data in statistical reporting on the fulfillment of contractual obligations.

In practice, such accounting is carried out by keeping a log. This journal provides sections that indicate, for example, under a supply contract, such data as details of the counterparty, numbers and dates of contracts, specifications, orders, orders, the volume of products to be delivered and the delivery time, the name of the shipped products and the date of shipment, numbers of transport documents, payment requests and other information.

Control functions for the proper fulfillment of contractual obligations should be carried out by all services related to the conduct of contractual work. For the same purposes, they can form special services monitoring the fulfillment of obligations. Of particular importance in this work is the legal service of enterprises. It must develop and implement measures that contribute to the impeccable fulfillment of the terms of the contract, coordinate in this regard the activities of all parts of the enterprise.

Accounting and control should also be maintained for the improper fulfillment of contractual obligations by counterparties. And here the legal service, along with other structural divisions, should organize the prompt collection of the necessary information about violations of contractual obligations. This will allow timely identification and not leave a single case unattended. improper performance contracts, reduce the gap in time between the violation and the application of liability to the debtor, improve the accuracy and quality of the prepared claim and claim materials.

The principle of freedom of contract lies at the heart of the conclusion of a contract. Citizens and legal entities enter into contractual relations of their own free will and in their own interest, they are free to establish their rights and obligations and to determine any terms of the contract that do not contradict the law

These provisions are designed to ensure the normal functioning of civil circulation, necessary condition which is the equality of its members.

Development free market sometimes requires the adoption of non-standard decisions, and therefore modern legislation gives the parties to the contract the right to conclude contracts, both provided and not provided for by law or other legal acts. In addition, the parties may conclude an agreement that contains elements of various agreements provided for by law or other legal acts (mixed agreement). At the same time, the relations of the parties under a mixed contract will be applied in the relevant parts of the rules on contracts, the elements of which are contained in the mixed contract, unless otherwise follows from the agreement of the parties or the essence of the mixed contract. However, one should be warned against hasty and ill-conceived experimentation in concluding such agreements. They require a fairly high legal qualification. Otherwise, if a dispute arises under such an agreement, the parties may expect an unpleasant surprise when the court determines the law applicable to this agreement and it turns out that the relations of the parties, including liability for violation of their obligations under this agreement, are not established as the parties expected . That is, before inventing "new" provisions of the contract, it is necessary to make sure that the law does not establish mandatory requirements for the preparation of these terms of the contract. Otherwise, it may turn out that the law provides for some other consequences than those expected by the parties.

The parties to the contract may determine its terms at their own discretion in all cases where the content of the relevant term is not determined by law or other legal act of a strictly binding nature (imperative norms). That is, the principle of "freedom within the framework of the law" applies.

1.1 Main activities of the enterprise

Current (main, operating) activity - the activity of an organization that pursues profit making as the main goal, or does not have profit making as such in accordance with the subject and goals of the activity, i.e., the production of industrial, agricultural products, the implementation construction works selling goods, providing services Catering, harvesting agricultural products, leasing property, etc.

Inflows from current activities:

receipt of proceeds from the sale of products (works, services);

Receipts from the resale of goods received by barter;

Receipts from the repayment of receivables;

advances received from buyers and customers.

Outflows from current activities:

payment for purchased goods, works, services;

Issuance of advances for the purchase of goods, works, services;

payment of accounts payable for goods, works, services;

· salary;

payment of dividends, interest;

· payment according to calculations on taxes and fees.

Investment activity - the activity of an organization related to the acquisition of land plots, buildings, other real estate, equipment, intangible assets and other non-current assets, as well as their sale; with the implementation of own construction, expenses for research, development and technological development; with financial investments.

Inflows from investment activities:

receipt of proceeds from the sale of non-current assets;

receipt of proceeds from the sale of securities and other financial investments;

income from the repayment of loans granted to other organizations;

receiving dividends and interest.

Outflows from investment activities:

payment for acquired non-current assets;

payment of acquired financial investments;

· issuance of advances for the acquisition of non-current assets and financial investments;

granting loans to other organizations;

· Contributions to authorized (share) capitals of other organizations.

Financial activities - the activities of the organization, as a result of which the value and composition of the organization's own capital, borrowed funds change.

Tributaries along financial activities:

Receipt from the issue of equity securities;

income from loans and credits provided by other organizations.

Outflows from financial activities:

repayment of loans and credits;

Repayment of financial lease obligations.

1.2 Nature and purpose operating activities

Enterprises operate in the market in a highly competitive environment. Those who lose in this struggle become bankrupt. In order not to go bankrupt, business entities must constantly monitor changes in the market environment, develop methods to counter negative factors in order to maintain their competitiveness.

In the process of managing the profit of the enterprise, the main role is given to the formation of profit from operating activities. Operational activity is the main activity of the enterprise, for the purpose of which it was created.

The nature of the operating activity of the enterprise is determined primarily by the specifics of the sector of the economy to which it belongs. The basis of the operating activities of most enterprises is production - commercial or trading activity which is complemented by their investment and financial activities. At the same time, investment activity is the main one for investment companies, investment funds and other investment institutions, and financial activity is the main one for banks and other financial institutions. But the nature of the activities of such financial and investment institutions, due to its specificity, requires special consideration.

The current activity of the enterprise is aimed primarily at extracting profit from the assets at its disposal. When analyzing this process, the following quantities are usually taken into account:

added value. This indicator is calculated by subtracting from the company's revenue for reporting period the cost of consumed material assets and services of third parties. For further use of this indicator, it is necessary to deduct value added tax from it;

· Gross result of exploitation of investments (BREI). It is calculated by subtracting from the value added the cost of wages and all taxes and mandatory contributions, except for income tax. BREI represents earnings before income tax, interest on borrowings and depreciation. BREI shows whether the enterprise has enough funds to cover these costs;

Earnings before income tax and interest, EBIT (Earnings before Interest and Taxes). Calculated by subtracting depreciation charges from BREI;

economic profitability, or income generation ratio (ERR), already mentioned earlier in the section on analysis using financial ratios. Calculated as EBIT divided by the total assets of the enterprise;

commercial margin. It is calculated by dividing EBIT by revenue for the reporting period and shows how much profit before taxes and interest each ruble of the company's turnover gives. In financial analysis, this ratio is considered as one of the factors affecting economic profitability (ER). Indeed, BEP can be thought of as the product of commercial margin times asset turnover.

Achievement high rate economic profitability is always associated with the management of its two components: commercial margin and asset turnover. As a rule, an increase in asset turnover is associated with a decrease in commercial margin and vice versa.

Both the commercial margin and asset turnover are directly dependent on the company's revenue, cost structure, pricing policy and overall strategy enterprises. The simplest analysis shows that the higher the price of products, the higher the commercial margin, but this usually reduces the turnover of assets, which greatly restrains the increase in economic profitability.

Economic profitability is a very useful indicator of the effectiveness of the enterprise, but for owners, often such an indicator as profitability is more important. own funds(ROE). To maximize it, it is necessary to choose the optimal capital structure of the company (the ratio of borrowed and own funds). In this case, the analysis of financial risk is carried out by calculating the effect of financial leverage.

The amount of cash flows generated from operating activities is a key indicator of the extent to which a company's operations generate sufficient cash flows to repay loans, maintain operating capacity, pay dividends, and make new investments without recourse to external sources of funding. Information about specific components of initial operating cash flows, combined with other information, is very useful in predicting future operating cash flows.

Cash flows from operating activities primarily arise from the main, income-generating activities of the company. As such, they generally result from transactions and other events that are part of the determination of net profit or loss. Examples of operating cash flows are:

cash receipts from the sale of goods and the provision of services;

cash receipts from rent, fees, commissions and other income;

cash payments to suppliers for goods and services;

cash payments to employees and on their behalf;

cash receipts and payments of the insurance company as insurance premiums and claims, annual premiums and other insurance benefits;

cash payments or income tax compensation, unless they can be linked to financial or investment activities;

cash receipts and payments under contracts concluded for commercial or trading purposes. Some transactions, such as the sale of a piece of equipment, may give rise to a gain or loss that is included in the determination of net profit or loss. However, the cash flows associated with such transactions are cash flows from investing activities.

A company may hold securities and loans for commercial or trading purposes, in which case they may be treated as stock purchased specifically for resale. Therefore, cash flows arising from the purchase or sale of commercial or trading securities are classified as operating activities. Similarly, cash advances and loans provided financial companies, are usually classified as operating activities because they are part of the principal, income-generating activities of a financial company.

One of the tools for market research and maintaining competitiveness is the analysis of the financial and economic activities of the enterprise, including the analysis of its financial condition. The order and tools of analysis, which is carried out in order to make financial decisions, is determined by the very logic of the functioning of the financial mechanism of the enterprise.

One of the simplest but effective types financial analysis, is an operational analysis, called CVP (cost-volum-profit, costs - volume - profit).

The purpose of the analysis of operating activities is to track the dependence of the financial results of the business on costs and sales volumes.

The main task of CVP analysis is to get answers to important questions that entrepreneurs have at all stages of money circulation, for example:

How much capital does a business need to have?

How to mobilize these funds?

To what extent can financial risk be reduced using the effect of financial leverage?

Which is cheaper: buying or renting real estate?

To what extent can the strength of operating leverage be increased by maneuvering variable and fixed costs, thereby changing the level of entrepreneurial risk associated with the activities of the enterprise?

Is it worth it to sell products at prices below cost?

Should we produce more of this or that product?

How will a change in sales volume affect profits?

Cost allocation and gross margin

CVP - analysis serves to find the optimal, most beneficial costs for the enterprise. It requires the allocation of costs to variable and fixed, direct and indirect, relevant and irrelevant.

Variable costs generally change in direct proportion to the volume of production. These can be the costs of raw materials and materials for the main production, the wages of the main production workers, the cost of selling products, etc. It is beneficial for the enterprise to have less variable costs per unit of output, because in this way it secures itself, respectively, more profit. With a change in the volume of production, total variable costs decrease (increase), at the same time, they remain unchanged per unit of output.

Fixed costs must be considered in short term, the so-called relevant range. In this case, they generally do not change. Fixed costs include rent, depreciation, wages managers, etc. The change in the volume of production has no effect on the size of these costs. However, in terms of a unit of output, these costs change inversely.

Direct costs are the costs of an enterprise that are directly related to the production process or the sale of goods (services). These costs can be easily attributed to a specific type of product. For example, raw materials, materials, wages of key workers, depreciation of specific machines, and others.

Indirect costs are not directly related to the production process and cannot be easily attributed to a specific product. Such costs include the salaries of managers, sales agents, heat, electricity for auxiliary production.

Relevant costs are costs that depend on management decisions.

Irrelevant costs do not depend on management decisions. For example, the manager of an enterprise has a choice: to produce the necessary part for the mechanism or to buy it. The fixed cost of producing the part is $35, and you can buy it for $45. So, in this case, the supplier price is the relevant cost, and the fixed cost of production is the irrelevant cost.

The problem associated with the analysis of fixed costs in production is that it is necessary to distribute their total value over the entire product range. There are several ways to distribute this. For example, the sum of fixed costs relative to the time fund gives the cost rate for 1 hour. If the production of goods takes 1/2 hour, and the rate is 6 c.u. per hour, then the value of fixed costs for the production of this product is 3 c.u.

Mixed costs include elements of fixed and variable costs. For example, the cost of paying for electricity, which is used both for technological purposes and for lighting premises. In the analysis, it is necessary to separate mixed costs into fixed and variable.

The sums of fixed and variable costs represent the total costs for the entire volume of production.

Ideal conditions for business - a combination of low fixed costs with high gross margins. Operational analysis allows you to establish the most beneficial combination of variable and fixed costs, prices and sales volume.

The process of asset management aimed at increasing profits is characterized in financial management like leverage. This is such a process, even an insignificant change in which leads to significant changes in performance indicators.

There are three types of leverage, which are determined by recomposing and disaggregating income statement items.

Production (operating) leverage is a potential opportunity to influence gross profit by changing the cost structure and output volume. The effect of operating leverage (leverage) is manifested in the fact that any change in revenue from the sale of products always generates a significant change in profit. This effect is due to varying degrees of influence of the dynamics of fixed and variable costs on the formation of financial results when the volume of production changes. The higher the level of fixed costs, the greater the power of operating leverage. The strength of the influence of the operating lever informs about the level of entrepreneurial risk.

Financial leverage is a tool that affects the profit of an enterprise by changing the structure and volume of long-term liabilities. The effect of financial leverage is that an enterprise using borrowed funds changes the net profitability of its own funds and its dividend opportunities. The level of financial leverage indicates the financial risk associated with the enterprise.

Since interest on a loan is a fixed cost, an increase in the share of borrowed funds in the structure of the financial resources of an enterprise is accompanied by an increase in the strength of the operating leverage and an increase in entrepreneurial risk. The category summarizing the two previous ones is called production and financial leverage, which is characterized by the relationship of three indicators: revenue, production and financial costs, and net profit.

The risks associated with the enterprise have two main sources:

The very influence of the operating lever, the strength of which depends on the proportion of fixed costs in their total amount and determines the degree of flexibility of the enterprise, generates entrepreneurial risk. This is the risk associated with a specific business in a niche market.

Volatility of the financial terms of lending, the uncertainty of the owners of shares in the return of investments in the event of the liquidation of an enterprise with a high level of borrowed funds, in fact, the very action of financial leverage generates financial risk.

Operational analysis is often referred to as break-even analysis. Break-even analysis of production is a powerful tool for making managerial decisions. By analyzing break-even production data, a manager can answer questions that arise when changing course of action, namely: what impact on profit will a decrease in the selling price have, how much sales are needed to cover additional fixed costs due to the planned expansion of the enterprise, how many people need to be hired etc. The manager in his work constantly needs to make decisions about the selling price, variable and fixed costs, the acquisition and use of resources. If he cannot make a reliable forecast of the level of profits and costs, his decisions can only bring harm to the company.

Thus, the purpose of the break-even analysis of activities is to establish what will happen to financial results if a certain level of productivity or production volume changes.

Break-even analysis is based on the relationship between changes in production volume and changes in total profit from sales, costs and net income.

The break-even point is understood as such a point of sales at which costs are equal to the proceeds from the sale of all products, that is, there is neither profit nor loss.

To calculate the break-even point, 3 methods can be used:

Equations

Marginal income;

graphic image.

Despite the difficult economic conditions in which enterprises find themselves today (lack of working capital, tax pressure, uncertainty about the future and other factors), nevertheless, each enterprise must have a strategic financial plan, a budget for a certain period: a month, a quarter, a year or more, for which a budgeting system should be introduced at the enterprise.

Budgeting is the process of planning the future activities of an enterprise and formalizing its results in the form of a system of budgets.

The objectives of budgeting are as follows:

· maintenance of current planning;

Ensuring coordination, cooperation and communication between departments of the enterprise;

to force managers to justify quantitatively their plans;

· substantiation of expenses of the enterprise;

· formation of base for an estimation and control of plans of the enterprise;

Compliance with the requirements of laws and contracts.

The budgeting system at the enterprise is based on the concept of centers and accountability.

Responsibility center is an area of ​​activity within which a manager is personally responsible for the performance indicators that he is obliged to control.

Responsibility accounting - an accounting system that provides control and evaluation of the activities of each responsibility center. The creation and functioning of the accounting system by responsibility centers provides for:

definition of responsibility centers;

· budgeting for each responsibility center;

regular reporting on performance;

· Analysis of the causes of deviations and evaluation of the activities of the center.

In an enterprise, as a rule, there are three types of responsibility centers: a cost center, the head of which is responsible for costs, affects them, but does not affect the income of the unit, the volume of capital investments and is not responsible for them; profit center, the head of which is responsible not only for costs, but also for income, financial results; investment center, the head of which controls costs, revenues, financial results, and investments.

Maintaining budgeting will allow the company to save financial resources, reduce non-production costs, achieve flexibility in managing and controlling product costs.

1.3 Management of the cash flows of the organization in the activities of the organization

The cash flows generated by the current activities of the organization often go into the sphere of investment activities, where they can be used to develop production. However, they can also be directed to the sphere of financial activity for the payment of dividends to shareholders. Current activities are quite often supported by financial and investment activities, which ensures additional capital inflow and the organization's survival in crisis situation. In this case, the organization ceases to finance capital investments and suspends the payment of dividends to shareholders.

The cash flow from current activities is characterized by the following features:

current activity is the main component of all business activities of the organization, so the cash flow generated by it should occupy the largest share in the total cash flow of the organization;

forms and methods of current activities depend on industry characteristics, therefore, in different organizations, cash flow cycles of current activities can vary significantly;

· Operations that determine the current activity are distinguished, as a rule, by regularity, which makes the monetary cycle quite clear;

· Current activity is focused mainly on the commodity market, so its cash flow is related to the state of the commodity market and its individual segments. For example, a deficit production stocks in the market can increase the outflow of money, and overstocking with finished products can reduce their inflow;

current activities, and hence its cash flow, are inherent in operational risks that can disrupt the cash cycle.

Fixed assets are not included in the cash flow cycle of current activities, since they are part of investing activities, but it is impossible to exclude them from the cash flow cycle. This is explained by the fact that current activities, as a rule, cannot exist without fixed assets, and in addition, part of the costs of investment activities is reimbursed through current activities through depreciation of fixed assets.

Thus, the current and investment activities of the organization are closely related. The cash flow cycle from investing activities is the period of time during which cash invested in non-current assets will return to the organization in the form of accumulated depreciation, interest or proceeds from the sale of these assets.

The cash flow from investing activities is characterized by the following features:

· the investment activity of the organization is subordinate in relation to the current activities, so the inflow and outflow of funds from investment activities should be determined by the pace of development of current activities;

Forms and methods of investment activity are much less dependent on the industry characteristics of the organization than current activities, therefore, in different organizations, the cycles of cash flows of investment activities are, as a rule, almost identical;

· the inflow of funds from investment activities in time is usually significantly distant from the outflow, i.e. the cycle is characterized by a long time lag;

investment activity has various forms (acquisition, construction, long-term financial investments, etc.) and different directions of cash flow in certain periods of time (as a rule, initially outflow prevails, significantly exceeding inflow, and then vice versa), which makes it difficult to represent the cycle of its cash flow flow in a fairly clear pattern;

· investment activity is associated with both commodity and financial markets, the fluctuations of which often do not coincide and can affect the investment cash flow in different ways. For example, an increase in demand in the commodity market may give the organization an additional cash inflow from the sale of fixed assets, but this, as a rule, will lead to a decrease in financial resources in the financial market, which is accompanied by an increase in their value (percentage), which, in turn, may lead to an increase in the cash outflow of the organization;

The cash flow of investment activities is affected by specific types of risks inherent in investment activities, united by the concept investment risks, which are more likely to occur than operational ones.

The cash flow cycle of financial activity is the period of time during which money invested in profitable objects will be returned to the organization with interest.

The cash flow from financing activities is characterized by the following features:

financial activity is subordinate in relation to the current and investment activities, therefore, the cash flow of financial activities should not be formed to the detriment of the current and investment activities of the organization;

the volume of cash flow of financial activities should depend on the availability of temporarily free cash, so the cash flow of financial activities may not exist for every organization and not constantly;

financial activity is directly related to the financial market and depends on its state. Developed and sustainable financial market can stimulate the financial activity of the organization, therefore, provide an increase in the cash flow of this activity, and vice versa;

financial activities are characterized by specific types of risks, defined as financial risks, which are characterized by a special danger, therefore, they can significantly affect the cash flow.

The cash flows of the organization are closely related to all three types of its activities. Money constantly "flows" from one activity to another. The cash flow of current activities, as a rule, should fuel investment and financing activities. If there is a reverse direction of cash flows, then this indicates an unfavorable financial position organizations.

Types of economic activity

There are several types of business activities:

• A household is a household run by a group of people living together.
• A small enterprise is an economic unit, engaged in the manufacture of a relatively small amount of goods. The owner of such an enterprise can be one person or several. As a rule, the owner uses his own labor or employs a relatively small number of workers.
• Large enterprises are enterprises that produce goods in bulk. As a rule, these enterprises are formed by combining the property of the owners. An example of which enterprise is a joint-stock company.
• The national economy is an association economic activity nationwide. To a certain extent, this activity is directed by the state, which, in turn, is trying to ensure the sustainable growth of the country's economy and thereby increase the welfare of the entire population.
• The world economy is an economic system in which there are interconnections between different countries and peoples.

Forms of economic activity

Definition 1

The form of economic activity is a system of norms that determines the internal relations of the partners of the enterprise, as well as the relationship of this enterprise with other counterparties and government agencies.

There are several forms of economic activity:

• Individual form;
• collective form;
• corporate form.

Under individual form of economic activity refers to an enterprise whose owner is either an individual or a family. The functions of the owner and entrepreneurs are combined in one entity. He receives and distributes the income received, and also bears the risk from the implementation of his economic activities and has unlimited property liability to his creditors and third parties. As a rule, such enterprises are not legal entities. The owner of this enterprise can attract additional hired labor, but rather limited quantity(no more than 20 people).

If speak about collective form of economic activity, then there are three types of them: business partnerships, business companies, joint-stock companies.

Business partnerships can be in the form of: full partnership and limited partnership. A general partnership is an organization based on collective ownership. It is usually a combination of several individuals or legal. All participants in this type of partnership bear full unlimited liability for all obligations of the partnership. The property of a full partnership is formed at the expense of the contributions of its participants and the income received in the course of carrying out their activities. All property belongs to a participant in a general partnership on the basis of shared ownership.

A limited partnership is an association where one or more of its owners are fully liable for all the obligations of the partnership, the remaining investors are liable only to the extent of their capital.

To business companies include: society with limited liability, additional liability company. A limited liability company is an enterprise that is created by combining the contributions of legal entities and individuals. At the same time, the number of participants in a limited liability company cannot exceed the established limit, otherwise this company will be transformed into a joint-stock company within a year.

Additional Liability Company is an organization that authorized capital divided into shares, the size of which is determined in advance. This type of company is formed by one or more persons. For all obligations of the company, all its founders bear subsidiary liability in the amount that is a multiple of the value of the contribution to the authorized capital.

Joint-stock company is a form of economic activity, all the funds of which are formed by combining the capital of the founders, as well as the issuance and placement of shares. Members joint-stock company are liable for all obligations of the company in an amount equal to the contributions.

In order to protect their commercial interests and increase the efficiency of using the capital of an enterprise, various organizational and legal forms can be combined into so-called corporate forms of entrepreneurship. These include: concerns, consortium, intersectoral and regional unions.

Concern is an association of organizations that carry out joint activities voluntarily. As a rule, concerts have scientific and technical functions, functions of production and social development, functions foreign economic activity and etc.

Consortium- association of the organization for the solution of certain problems, created for a while. In our country, a consortium is being created to implement government programs by organizations of any form of ownership.

Industry and regional unions are an association of organizations on contractual terms. These unions are created to carry out one or more production and economic functions.

Organization of economic activity

The organization of economic activity goes through three stages:

1. Stage 1 - opportunity assessment. Initially, an objective assessment should be made of all the resources necessary for the production process. For these purposes, it is advisable to use scientific developments. The main advantage of this stage is that it helps to give a preliminary assessment of the potential for production of products precisely in those volumes and under those conditions that will be investigated, and on the basis of which the decision to launch the production of a particular product will be approved. After the production potential of the organization has been studied, the production line is launched within the framework of the formed plan.
2. Stage 2 - launch of ancillary production. Implementation this stage takes place only if necessary. Ancillary production is a rather necessary measure, since it helps to develop new market segments and increase the chance of the organization's financial development being effective. The organization can be serviced on their own and through the involvement of third-party organizations and resources. At this stage, services are used to optimize the activities of production and evaluate the potential costs of funds. At the next stage, work is carried out aimed at studying the sales market and the possibilities of selling products.
3. Stage 3 - marketing of products. All stages affecting the sale of products are monitored. At the same time, accounting sold products, forecasts are compiled and studied, allowing to make competent decisions of the organization's management. There are situations when it is necessary to develop a methodology for after-sales service. For example, when setting warranty period for your products.

Chapter 1. Fundamentals of the economic activity of the enterprise

1.2 The essence and objectives of operating activities

1.3 Management of the cash flows of the organization in the activities of the organization

Chapter 2. Investment and financial activities of enterprises

2.1 Features of investment activity

2.2 Financial activities as one of the main activities of the organization

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

Relevance. An enterprise is an independent economic unit that operates on the territory of a given state and is subject to the laws of this state.

The administrative and economic independence of an enterprise is determined by law and means that the enterprise independently decides how much to produce and how to sell it, how to distribute the income received.

The main characteristic features of the enterprise are production and technical unity, expressed in the commonality of production processes; organizational unity - the presence of a single leadership, plan; economic unity, manifested in the community of material, financial resources, as well as economic results of work.

The Civil Code of the Russian Federation considers an enterprise as a single property complex, including all types of property intended for carrying out activities: land plots, buildings, structures, equipment, inventory, raw materials, products, rights of claim, debts, as well as rights to a company name, trademarks and service marks and other exclusive rights. It may be state or municipal property or belong to a commercial organization established in the form of a business company or partnership, a production cooperative or a non-profit organization that carries out entrepreneurial activities in accordance with the law and its charter (for example, property used by a garage cooperative for car repairs, its rights and responsibilities associated with this activity).

A property complex owned by an individual entrepreneur or members of a peasant (farm) economy can also act as an enterprise.

The cash flow of the enterprise is carried out by three types of activities:

current (main, operating) activity;

investment activities;

financial activities.

Purpose of the study- to analyze the types of activities of the enterprise.

Research objectives:

Consider the main activities of the enterprise.

Analyze the essence and objectives of operational activities.

Determine the features of investment activity.

Justify the importance of the financial activity of the enterprise.

Object of study- the fundamental characteristics of the economic activity of the enterprise. Subject of study- definition of features of types of activity of the enterprise.

Work structure: the work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a list of references.

Theoretical basis This work was served by the works of such authors as: Vasilyeva N.A., Mateush T.A., Mironov M.G., Zabrodskaya N.G. and others.

Chapter 1. Fundamentals of the economic activity of the enterprise

1.1 Main activities of the enterprise

Current (main, operating) activity - the activity of an organization that pursues profit making as the main goal, or does not have profit making as such in accordance with the subject and goals of the activity, i.e., production of industrial, agricultural products, construction work, sale goods, the provision of catering services, the procurement of agricultural products, the leasing of property, etc.

Inflows from current activities:

receipt of proceeds from the sale of products (works, services);

proceeds from the resale of goods received by barter;

proceeds from the repayment of receivables;

advances received from buyers and customers.

Outflows from current activities:

payment for purchased goods, works, services;

issuance of advances for the purchase of goods, works, services;

payment of accounts payable for goods, works, services;

salary;

payment of dividends, interest;

payment for taxes and fees.

Investment activity - the activity of an organization related to the acquisition of land plots, buildings, other real estate, equipment, intangible assets and other non-current assets, as well as their sale; with the implementation of own construction, expenses for research, development and technological development; with financial investments.

Inflows from investment activities:

receipt of proceeds from the sale of non-current assets;

receipt of proceeds from the sale of securities and other financial investments;

proceeds from the repayment of loans provided to other organizations;

receiving dividends and interest.

Outflows from investment activities:

payment, acquired non-current assets;

payment of acquired financial investments;

issuance of advances for the acquisition of non-current assets and financial investments;

granting loans to other organizations;

contributions to the authorized (share) capital of other organizations.

Financial activity - the activity of the organization, as a result of which the value and composition of the organization's own capital, borrowed funds change.

Cash inflows from financing activities:

proceeds from the issue of equity securities;

proceeds from loans and credits provided by other organizations.

Outflows from financial activities:

repayment of loans and credits;

repayment of financial lease obligations.

1.2 The essence and objectives of operating activities

Enterprises operate in the market in a highly competitive environment. Those who lose in this struggle become bankrupt. In order not to go bankrupt, business entities must constantly monitor changes in the market environment, develop methods to counter negative factors in order to maintain their competitiveness.

In the process of managing the profit of the enterprise, the main role is given to the formation of profit from operating activities. Operational activity is the main activity of the enterprise, for the purpose of which it was created.

The nature of the operating activity of the enterprise is determined primarily by the specifics of the sector of the economy to which it belongs. The basis of the operating activities of most enterprises is production, commercial or trading activities, which are complemented by their investment and financial activities. At the same time, investment activity is the main one for investment companies, investment funds and other investment institutions, and financial activity is the main one for banks and other financial institutions. But the nature of the activities of such financial and investment institutions, due to its specificity, requires special consideration.

The current activity of the enterprise is aimed primarily at extracting profit from the assets at its disposal. When analyzing this process, the following quantities are usually taken into account:

added value. This indicator is calculated by subtracting from the company's revenue for the reporting period the cost of consumed material assets and services of third-party organizations. For further use of this indicator, it is necessary to deduct value added tax from it;

gross result of exploitation of investments (BREI). It is calculated by subtracting from the value added the cost of wages and all taxes and mandatory contributions, except for income tax. BREI represents earnings before income tax, interest on borrowings and depreciation. BREI shows whether the enterprise has enough funds to cover these costs;

earnings before income tax and interest, EBIT (Earnings before Interest and Taxes). Calculated by subtracting depreciation charges from BREI;

 

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