Courseworker communication as a factor in personality development. Communication as a factor in personality development Communication as a psychological factor in human development
Man, like all living things in nature, develops, assimilating the experience that mankind has accumulated throughout its existence. Human development is a complex and contradictory process initiated by a combination of many forces: biological and cultural; internal motives and external influences. This process begins from the moment of birth and lasts until the end of life, the nature of its course is largely determined by the environment, but at the same time depends on the personal characteristics and properties of a person.
The initial development of a person is considered in psychology as a transition from a simple, inseparable identity of the individual and the genus to the isolation of singularity. Human development is carried out in communication with other people.
LS Vygotsky described the signs of development, the most important of which are differentiation, the dismemberment of the formerly single element; the emergence of new sides, elements in the development itself; restructuring of connections between the sides of the object. He also distinguished two types of development. The preformed type of development is a type when at the very beginning, both the stages that the phenomenon (organism) will pass and the final result are set and fixed. The unreformed type of development is not predetermined in advance, it does not give final forms.
LF Obukhova notes that development is, first of all, a qualitative change, characterized by the appearance of new formations, new mechanisms, processes, structures.
V.S. Mukhina believes that personality development is determined not only by innate characteristics and social conditions, but also by an internal position - a certain attitude towards the world of people, towards the world of things and towards oneself.
In its most general form, "personality development", according to V.A. Development takes place in the “inner space of the personality,” but this is the space of his connections with other people. “Realizing oneself in another, as if returning to oneself, a person can never achieve identity with himself, his reflected self does not coincide with the acting one.
While active-non-adaptive actions (self-acting) are built without a prototype and are open to an unknown future, in their reproductions (reflected self) they complete themselves to the degree of completeness and thereby “lose” themselves in them, contradict themselves; the essential in a person's personality (to be the primary cause of activity) comes into conflict with existence (to be reflected in other people and in oneself). Subjectively, this contradiction is experienced as a doubt about the authenticity of oneself as a cause, which prompts the search for new opportunities for self-determination - new acts of freedom. In this generation of oneself as a subject, reflection, and again generation, the development of personality takes place. "
According to V.A. Petrovsky, developing as a person, a person forms and develops his own nature. He appropriates cultural objects, acquires a circle of significant others, manifests himself in front of himself, that is, a person enters the world of four “worlds”: “Nature”, “Objective world”, “The world of another”, “I myself”.
Describing the relationship between these worlds, the author highlights the following two statements. First, any object "on earth or in the sky" enters at least one of the worlds; the second is that any object is included in each of the four "worlds." Each of these four worlds is closely related to the rest, they represent several facets of one single world.
V.S.Mukhina believes that the condition for the development of personality, in addition to the reality of nature, is the reality of a culture created by man. The author classifies this reality as follows: the reality of the objective world, the reality of figurative-sign systems, the reality of social space, natural reality. Activities that introduce a person into the space of contemporary culture, on the one hand, are components of culture, and on the other, they are a condition for the development of a person's personality.
A.N. Leontiev noted that the process of personality development always remains deeply individual, unique. The main thing is that this process proceeds in completely different ways, depending on specific historical conditions, on a person's belonging to a particular group or environment.
S. L. Rubinstein characterized personality as follows. A person is a person due to the fact that he consciously determines his attitude to the environment. A person is, to the maximum extent, a personality, when there is a minimum of neutrality, indifference, indifference in him, therefore, consciousness is of fundamental importance for the development of personality, but not only as knowledge, but also as an attitude.
Personality in communication combines the unique and the universal. Having reached the state of perfection, internal unity, it establishes new relations with the society in which it lives, rises above the civilization to which it belongs. At the same time, she resists joining mass culture, becomes more a member of the human race and, to a lesser extent, a member of a local communication group.
Existentialists, as you know, emphasize the ultimate loneliness and uniqueness of a person. And it is precisely this idea that sharpens the problem of contact, interaction, interpenetration in communication. Verbal communication cannot solve the problem of "communication between people in their uniqueness." Understanding is possible through "intuition and empathy, love and altruism, identification with others and homonomy in general."
It is this phenomenon of interpersonal and intercultural communication - development deep human essence, its ascent to its spiritual perfection, and constitutes the true nature of communication. The need for development and self-development encourages human associations not only to self-knowledge, but also to interpenetration - in the process of the development of human civilization. Mutual penetration is realized both in positive, friendly, and negative, conflict, sometimes in aggressive forms.
Therefore, we can conclude that one of the important conditions for the development of personality is communication with the outside world and the relationships that a person establishes in the process of this communication.
In psychology, the problem of the relationship between the processes of communication and activity has been discussed in recent years. Some argue that communication is an activity or, at least, a special case of activity, others proceed from the fact that these are two independent and equal processes. There is no reason to agree with either point of view, not because someone is wrong here, but because in fact there is no contradiction.
Indeed, the question of whether communication is a part (side) of the process of activity, or, on the contrary, activity is a side of communication, as applied to the traditional understanding of communication as an act of communication, clearly does not have an unambiguous solution. It is quite obvious that if we understand the relationship of people as a mediated subject-object-subject process, then the relationship of two or more people is mediated by the object of activity, and here activity acts as a side of the communication act. If we understand them as a subject-subject-object process (and this is how activity relations are understood), then the subject's relation to the object, content, goal of the activity is mediated by the relationship with the participant in the activity, and then communication is a side, part of the activity.
The fundamental reversibility of subject-object-subjective and subject-subject-object relations completely removes the problem posed. Attempts to find out the priority in the history of mankind of either communication or activity would be similar to the classic problem of the egg and chicken.
But the question of the relationship between communication and activity can be deepened in the context of the proposed concept.
In order to produce, a person must unite with other people (establish contact with them, achieve mutual understanding, get the proper information, tell them the answer). Here, communication, as already mentioned, acts as a part, a side of activity, as its most important informative aspect, as communication. But, having created an object in the process of activity, which included communication as communication, a person is not limited to this. He broadcasts through the object he created himself, his own characteristics, his individuality to other people for whom he created this object. Among them there may be those who participated in the creation of this item. This person himself may be among them. Through the created object, a person transcends into a social whole, finding his ideal representation in it, continuing himself in other people and in himself as in "another".
This is communication of the second kind (as opposed to communication, which has an auxiliary, "serving" character), that is, communication as personalization. Here activity acts as a side, a part, a necessary prerequisite for communication. Communication in activity produces something in common between people, which appears twice: in terms of communication - its information side and in terms of personalization - personal. In this respect, the Russian language, unlike others, is in a more advantageous position: two concepts can be used in it - communication and communication.
So, once again the old truth is confirmed: many disputes occur due to the fact that the same object is called by different words, or, as it happened with the concept of "communication", due to the fact that the same word is used for designations of different objects.
Thus, the need to "be a person" arises on the basis of a socially generated possibility of carrying out appropriate actions - the ability to "be a person". This ability, it can be assumed, is nothing more than the individual psychological characteristics of a person, which allow him to carry out socially significant acts that ensure his adequate personalization in other people.
Thus, in unity with the need for personalization, which is the source of the subject's activity, its prerequisite and result is the socially generated, actually human ability to "be a person", which is revealed using the method of reflected subjectivity.
1. Introduction
2) 1 chapter. The role of communication in human development .......................... 5
1.1 Communication as a psychological phenomenon ................ 5
19th century ................................................ .......................... eleven
3) Chapter 2. Psychology - pedagogical conditions of communication
adolescents ................................................. ............... 24
2.1 The state of communication of modern youth ........ 24
2.2 Opportunities for communication in a family, school environment
leisure ................................................. ..................... 24
4) Conclusion ............................................... ................................ 29
5) Bibliography ............................................... ............................. thirty
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Communication as a factor in the formation of personality.
1. Introduction
2) 1 chapter. The role of communication in human development 5
1.1 Communication as a psychological phenomenon 5
1.2 Traditions of circle communication in the Russian cult?
19th century 11
3) Chapter 2. Psychology - pedagogical conditions of communication
Teenagers 24
2.1 The state of communication of modern youth 24
2.2 Opportunities for communication in a family, school environment
leisure 24
4) Conclusion 29
5) Bibliography 30
Introduction.
The relevance of researchis that group communication of children and adolescents is very popular today. The concept of "tusovka" is becoming widespread, but the content of this communication in most cases today is not productive for the development of personality. This leads to an interest in the traditions of Russian culture, where circle communication has always been an important condition for the development of a personality. Therefore, today we see a certain contradiction: V modern society there is no shortage of communication, but it is not always positive in terms of developmentpersonality. This contradiction causes the research problem... Object research of this work is: Youth circle communication, and subject research - specific features of communication. Target of this study - to reveal the features of circle communication, as a factor in the formation of personality in modern conditions. Based on this goal, we set ourselves the following tasks :
1) Expand the concept and role of communication in human development.
2) Analyze the traditions of circle communication in Russian culture.
3) Describe the state of communication of modern youth.
4) Consider the psychological - pedagogical conditions for the correction of communication between adolescents and young men in a family, school and leisure. Hypothesis This work consists in the fact that, if in terms of content, communication is superficial, then the features of a deeply personal dialogue are lost, the result of which is a lack of interest in another person.
The theoretical basis of the studywas the work of Zlobina E.G. "Communication as a factor in the development of personality."
To carry out this work, we used the following methods
research:
Literature analysis
Also in the work were carried out suchresearch stages how:
Collection of material
Material analysis
Generalization of the material
Conclusion (conclusion is made).
Chapter 1. "The role of communication in human development."
Communication as a psychological phenomenon.
One of the main types of contacts between people is communication.
Communication - the interaction of two or more people with the aim of establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships, achieving a common result of joint activities; one of the most important factors of mental and social development child.
Communication is characteristic of all higher living beings, but at the human level it takes on the most perfect forms, becoming conscious and mediated by speech. The following aspects are distinguished in communication: content, purpose and means. Content is information that is transmitted from one living being to another in interindividual contacts. The content of communication can be information about the internal motivational or emotional state of a living being. People exchange information with each other, representing knowledge about the world, rich, lifetime acquired experience, knowledge, abilities, skills and abilities. Human communication is multidimensional, it is the most diverse in its inner content.
The purpose of communication is what a person has for this type of activity. The number of communication goals is increasing. They include the transfer and receipt of objective knowledge about the world, training and education, the coordination of reasonable actions of people in their joint activities, the establishment and clarification of personal and business relationships. The goals of communication in humans are a means of satisfying many diverse needs: social, cultural, cognitive, creative, aesthetic, needs
intellectual growth, moral development and a number of others.
The differences in the means of communication are no less significant. They can be defined as methods of encoding, transferring, processing and decoding information transmitted in the process of communication from one living being to another.
Depending on the content, goals and means of communication, it can be divided into several types. In terms of content, it can be presented as material (exchange of objects and products of activity), cognitive (exchange of knowledge), conditional (exchange
mental or physiological states), motivational (exchange of motives, goals, interests, motives, needs), activity (exchange of actions, operations, skills, abilities). In material communication, the subjects, being engaged in individual activity, exchange its products, which, in turn, serve as a means of satisfying their actual needs. In conditioned communication, people influence each other, calculated to bring each other into a certain physical or mental state. For example, to cheer up or, on the contrary, spoil it; excite or calm each other, and ultimately, have a certain effect on the well-being of each other.
Motivational communication has as its content the transmission to each other of certain motives, attitudes or readiness to act in a certain direction. As an example of such communication, one can name the cases when one person wants to ensure that another person has or disappears a certain desire, so that someone has a certain attitude towards action, a certain need becomes actualized. Cognitive and activity communication can be illustrated by communication associated with different kinds cognitive or educational activities. Here information is transmitted from subject to subject, expanding horizons, improving and developing abilities.
By goals, communication is divided into biological and social in accordance with the needs it serves. Biological is the communication necessary for the maintenance, preservation and development of the organism. It deals with the satisfaction of basic organic needs. Social communication pursues the goal of expanding and strengthening interpersonal contacts, establishing and developing interpersonal relationships, and personal growth of the individual. There are so many private
goals of communication, how many subspecies of biological and social needs can be distinguished.
By means of communication, it can be direct and mediated, direct and indirect. Direct communication is carried out with the help of natural organs given to a living being by nature: hands, head, torso, vocal cords, etc. Mediated communication is associated with the use of special means and tools for organizing communication and exchange of information. These are either natural objects (a stick, a thrown stone, a footprint on the ground, etc.), or cultural (sign systems, recordings of symbols on various media, print, radio, television, etc.).
Direct communication presupposes personal contacts and direct perception of people communicating with each other in the very act of communication, for example, bodily contacts, conversations of people with each other, their communication in those cases when they see and directly react to each other's actions.
Indirect communication is carried out through intermediaries who can be other people (for example, negotiations between conflicting parties at the interstate, interethnic, group, family levels).
A person differs from animals in that he has a special, vital need for communication, as well as in the fact that he spends most of his time in communication with other people.
Among the types of communication, one can also distinguish business and personal, instrumental and targeted. Business communication is usually included as a private moment in any joint productive activity of people and serves as a means of improving the quality of this activity. Its content is what to do: people, and not those problems that affect their inner world. In contrast to business, personal communication, on the contrary, is concentrated mainly around psychological problems of an internal nature, those interests and needs that deeply and intimately affect a person's personality: the search for the meaning of life, determination of one's attitude to a significant person, to what is happening around, resolution any internal conflict, etc.
Communication can be called instrumental, which is not an end in itself, is not stimulated by an independent need, does not pursue any other goal, except for receiving satisfaction from the very act of communication. Purposeful is communication, which in itself serves Communication, diverse in content, goals and means, also performs a specific function in the development of an individual. Material communication allows a person to receive objects of material and spiritual culture necessary for a normal life, which act as a condition individual development... Cognitive communication directly acts as a factor of intellectual development, since communicating individuals exchange and mutually enrich their knowledge.
Conditioned communication creates a state of readiness for learning, formulates attitudes necessary to optimize other types of communication. Thus, it indirectly contributes to the individual intellectual and personal development of a person. Motivational communication serves as a source of additional energy for a person, a kind of his "recharging".
Activity communication, which we have defined as an interpersonal exchange of actions, operations, skills and abilities, has a direct developmental effect for an individual, as it improves and enriches his own activity.
Biological communication serves the self-preservation of the organism as the most important condition for the maintenance and development of its vital functions. Social communication serves the social needs of people and is a factor contributing to the development of forms of social life: groups, collectives, organizations, nations, states, the human world as a whole.
Direct communication is necessary for a person in order to learn and grow up as a result of the widespread use in practice of the simplest and most effective means and methods of learning given to him from birth: conditioned reflex, vicarious and verbal. Mediated communication helps to assimilate the means of communication and improve and self-education of a person, while attacks to consciously control the communication itself.
Thanks to non-verbal communication, a person gets the opportunity to develop psychologically even before he has mastered and learned to use speech (about 2-3 years). In addition, non-verbal communication itself contributes to the development and improvement of a person's communicative capabilities, as a result of which he becomes more capable of interpersonal contacts and opens up wider opportunities for development. As for verbal communication and its role in the mental development of an individual, it is difficult to overestimate it. It is associated with the assimilation of speech, and it, as you know, underlies the entire development of a person, both intellectual and personal.
Traditions of circle communication in Russian culture of the 19th century.
The study of circles and salons has been carried on until now completely anarchist. Their entire area is still almost boundless virgin soil, on which here and there a small furrow has been drawn. Only in relation to 2-3 circles did researchers try to raise the question of their "influence" on the writer, without setting themselves the more serious goal of tracing the role and significance of this circle in literature and society in general. There was no independent interest in this area, and there could not be either in science, which aims to study literary portraits and biographies, or in a science built exclusively on the works of writers.
Meanwhile, the question of circles and salons is next in line, and it is in this plane. Suffice it to say that in the first half of the 19th century, a huge number of circles and salons were founded in order to understand how widespread this pitch of associations was in Russian society, and how highly appreciated it was in the eyes of contemporaries.
In the conditions of Russian culture at the beginning of the 19th century. literature played a dominant role. If in the 18th century. poetry somehow reached out for painting, and Derzhavin and Dmitriev, different people in literature, were fond of transferring paintings and paints to poetry, then painting of the 19th century. already reaching for literature. In part, this literary culture has survived to this day; at least none of the arts causes such hot methodological disputes in our country as literature does. At the beginning of the 19th century. Russian society was already heavily saturated with literature. Therefore, if not all of the circles and salons of that time were clearly of a literary nature, then all of them are of interest to the literary critic, that they cultivate literature, that conversations in them often revolve around it, and that, thus, further those of them who are not engaged in literary production are important for us as a kind of literary consumption exchange The saturation of the interests of the people of that time with literature can be illustrated by one very striking example.
“Winter seasons of 1814 and 1815. Moscow was even noisier and more fun than the seasons of 1810-1811. The ball followed the ball without a break, in between - possible breakfasts, skating, children's mornings, etc. Volkov in a letter to Lanskoy dated January 4, 1815. lists his trips for the current week: on Saturday they danced until 5 o'clock in the morning at the Obolenskys, on Monday until 3 o'clock at the Golitsyns, on Thursday there will be a costume ball at Ryabinina, on Saturday evening) Obolenskikh, on Sunday they were invited to c. Tolstoy will have to dance for breakfast, after which there will be dancing, and in the evening, on the same day, he will have to dance at F Golitsyn's. And so all winter without interruption, and all these balls "are so lively that you have to spin until exhaustion."
The history of the ball is still very dark. Probably, the balls in the Russian high society circle go back to the traditions of the Peter's assemblies introduced in the plan of Peter's cultural enlightenment work. Later, there was a differentiation into receptions (without dancing) and balls. In the very
early 19th century balls were already quite a cultural institution, in particular related to literature. Zhikharev's notes preserved an interesting literary competition that took place during dinner after one ball in 1805.
“... The supper was about a hundred people, very good ... at one of the small tables, not far from me, two ladies and three men, including Pavel Ivanovich Kutuzov, were sitting, and they talked rather fervently about literature, quoting their favorite his poems. Anna Dorofeevna Urbanovskaya, a very smart, lively girl ... read Kolychev's poem "Moth" and said that she liked it because of her naivety and that Pavel Ivanovich would not write such a thing. The poet flushed. "But do you know, madam, that I can write better than these verses for any given rhymes?" - "No, don't write" "Would you like to try?" Urbanovskaya looked around and thought about it, and when she heard that some of the guests were talking with fervor about the Persian war and our prisoners, she said: “Excuse me; here are four rhymes for you: captivity, fetters, steelyard, horseshoes; I give you a deadline until the end of dinner. " Pavel Ivanovich, with a flushed face and burning eyes, pulled out his wallet, took out a pencil and plunged it into thought. The others continued to talk. A few minutes later, the poet jumped out from the table with triumph. "Listen, madam, and you gentlemen, be our judges," and he loudly began to read his bouts-rime "s:
Not being in the war, I know that there is captivity,
Without being in the police, I know the shackles,
To hang the charms, I do not need a steelyard.
You will fall at your feet, even if there were horseshoes.
"Bravo, bravo!" cried out the judges and sentenced Urbanovskaya to apologize to Pavel Ivanovich, who so magnanimously took revenge on his opponent.
Alexei Mikhailovich Pushkin said that if his cousin Vasily Lvovich Pushkin, who considers himself to be the first to do bouts rime's and impromptu, learns about these verses, then he will have spasms, if something is not worse, especially since Pavel Ivanovich is of another sect in literature".
Poems on given rhymes, charades, impromptu, epigrams - a significant part of the literary wealth of Karamzinism - directly run into a similar everyday atmosphere at a ball, in a living room, at a friendly feast. Russian culture began
19th century was literary through and through, and in these conditions it is characteristic that
even a secular ball along with a literary-consuming function (reading your favorite poems as a form of conversation) also created conditions for literary production.
Another indicator of the saturation of the then society with literary culture are the albums of secular beauties. Quite a few gallant verses and compliments are scribbled on these yellowed sheets of faded ink, showing the high poetic skill of the then gentlemen. It is known with what elegance Pushkin's father, Sergei Lvovich, painted in the albums. Sometimes the album is an example of a competition of wit, a kind of poetry tournaments. In Bunina's album, for example, under the poems of a certain Boris Blank "Should I dare write poetry ..." and so on. someone else gave a wave:
Who was pushing you by the arm? Don't you dare - it would be better not to write.
Such verse tournaments are quite common. No wonder Pushkin called the secular albums in Eugene Onegin "the torment of fashionable rhymes."
Boratynsky also emphasizes the competitive nature of album recordings:
According to my observation
Does the album sound like a graveyard?
And isn't it like him
He is an open dwelling for everyone;
Is it not also Proudly speckled with a multitude of names?
Cultural Society of the early 19th century. was soaked through and through with literature. Therefore, we do not need to strictly differentiate the circles and salons of that time into literary and non-literary. Under the conditions of that time and that literature, every circle and salon - from riotous
a circle of young mischief-makers to a prim salon - could be a hearth where literature was grown and distributed.
Great social significance of literary circles and salons of the first half of the 19th century. can be supported by two more examples: the attitude of the revolutionary underground and the Nikolaev gendarmerie towards them. Already in the 10s, secret political associations that nominated future Decembrists were spreading among the officers. This revolutionary underground, of course, was alien to purely literary tasks. True, many writers, in one way or another, came into contact with them: Kuchelbecker and Ryleev were active Decembrists, Pushkin, Griboyedov, Katenin and many others were in weaker contact with this movement. But this is the concern of writers to social movement cannot be viewed as an ideological connection between the literary and social tasks of our time, as it was before. In the Decembrist movement, the writer acted more like a citizen, and in his literary work, his connection with the Decembrists was expressed only sometimes and only in new, civil material, processed in the same literary system as other, purely literary material. Thus, the connection between writers and revolutionaries was more or less personal and did not extend to any public tasks Decembrists, nor on the literary tasks of the writers of that time.
And yet we see that the Decembrist revolutionary underground is trying to involve purely literary circles and salons in its orbit. As established by V.I. Semevsky,individual members of revolutionary circles penetrate completely apolitical literary associations and, without betraying their goals, try to direct the circle's activities in the interests of the revolutionary underground. Assumptions have already been expressed more than once, which, however, seem unlikely, that "Arzamas" collapsed precisely as a result of the aspirations of M.F. Orlova, N.M. Muravyov and N.I. Turgenev, members of underground political organizations, put him on a political footing.
About F.P. Shakhovsky, we present the following communication by B.L. Modzalevsky: “M.A. Fon-Vizin, among the societies established by the members. Union of Welfare, mentions a literary society in Moscow. About this literary society, Zubkov showed (during the investigation) that in 1817 or 1818 year book. F.P. Shakhovskoy invited him to join a secret literary society, the name of which he did not know, but which had a written charter. “Its purpose,” he said, “seems to have been solely in the dissemination of generally useful knowledge among members and in financial benefits to poor members, and the means consisted in translations into Russian of the best
foreign books and some donations ”. In the draft of Zubkov's answer, it was added that members were required to contribute 1/10 of the income and pay fines whenever they did not bring any essay or translation. The main exercise of the members was to translate good history books in both essays, poetry and prose. "
In 1818, the "Green Lamp" was founded, also closely associated with the Decembrists. This circle united the progressive youth of the nobility. Its goal is to promote the Decembrist ideas through literature and art, its leaders were the future Decembrists - SP. Trubetskoy, F.N. Glinka, L.N. Tolstoy,
It is worth pondering why the Decembrists so persistently sought and carried out their influence in literary circles and salons. It was not literature that attracted them in this case, but the great social significance of literary circles and salons. The functions of literary organizations as disseminators of Decembrist sentiments are still poorly understood, but there is no doubt that the deep sympathy for Decembrism that we find in Russian society of that time, and the halo of glory that surrounded it for many decades, are in some part due to the work of literary circles and salons drawn into the orbit of the revolutionary underground.
In early memoirs, society is also understood as a circle, i.e. a small, usually friendly association, gathering somewhere at home, not registered with the appropriate authorities, but usually having - especially within the first quarter of the last century - its own charter and keeping minutes of its meetings.
Organized for the solution of certain priority tasks, changing in accordance with their function in a particular era, circles usually very soon enter the stage of their dying. The "Friendly Literary Society," as the Turgenev circle was called, existed for only a few months; Arzamas, founded in the fall of 1815, lasted only until the fall of 1817, although its individual sessions lasted until the end of 1818. Lubovudry also existed for only about 3 years. The idea is created that the circle is, as it were, a short-term organization of that literary youth who, not being satisfied with the official generally accepted literature of adults, is trying to resolve literary issues in their own way. Of course, the concept of "adults" and "young" should not be understood literally, although literary revolutionaries in the first half of the 19th century, with a few exceptions, were supplied by the youth.
It is necessary to think about this fragility of the circles. If a circle is so short-lived, we asked ourselves, if it arises easily and freely in order to disappear just as quickly, then shouldn't the literary historian pay special attention not to circles, but to literary societies that do not arise so easily and are much more durable ?
Salons are more tenacious than mugs. Quite often we come across salons spanning several decades. Salon F.P. Fat Man, known in the 30s and continuing, apparently, and later, was founded in 1809. Odoevsky's salon, founded in the 1920s, existed until the late 1960s. Salon Karamzina covers a period of about 25 years. Of course, during such a relatively large amount of time, literature changes significantly, rebuilds, its former interests fall into the realm of legends, and new interests arise, usually coldly met by representatives of old literature. That's why v In the life of a salon, you can always distinguish the period in which it is most active, and other periods when it is limited only to one that has already become a habit of observing the area of interest to it.
The salon is more than a circle associated with the everyday life of the era because there is no fixed composition of visitors in it and there is no obligation to visit it. Here the forms are much more free than in the circle. Do you often observe in the practice of societies? the requirement of compulsory attendance at meetings. Indifference to the work of a society or a circle, non-attendance at its meetings without good reason usually entails expulsion from the membership. If these requirements are at the beginning of the 19th century. were much less harsh, yet they were. In the salon, however, people gather from the circle introduced once and for all into the owner's house; but the composition of the salon in each evening is determined by personal desire, personal interest, will, but not obligation. In principle, there is no obligation to visit a salon.
Another characteristic feature salon is the presence of the owners. This affects the character of the salon in the sense that the contingent of visitors is not always united by a common interest like the members of the circle. Here family ties, and position in the world, and all kinds of casual acquaintances appear on the scene. Thus, people who are alien to the issues and interests of the salon appear in the brightest literary salons. But sometimes literary interests bind the small nucleus of the salon so closely that it somewhat approaches in its type to a literary circle.
The literary functions of the circles and salons are also different: the circle is more associated with the writer, the salon with the reader. The participation of the salon of persons not directly related to literature makes it easier for him to disseminate ideas and tastes, to introduce them to society. If the circle helps us to illuminate the issues of literary production, then the salon will illuminate for us the issues of literary consumption.
The salons work in two ways: on fixed days of the week in advance, or simply in the evenings. The first type includes V.F.
Odoevsky (Saturdays), the second - the salon of E.A. Karamzina. With this first type of salons, already in the second half of the 1920s, begin to compete: “evenings”, often simply designated by the days of the week that the meetings took place: these are Pletnev's Wednesdays and Sundays, Pletnev's Wednesdays, Grech's Thursdays, Nikitenka Zhukovsky's and Voeikov's Fridays, Aksakov's Saturdays and many others. These evenings initially differed from the salons in their more democratic composition of visitors. It was not writers with the aristocracy, like Odoevsky's, and not aristocratic writers, like Karamzina, but simply writers with writers and artists. This more closed circle of professionals predetermined the further history of these evenings. Of these, editorial meetings of magazines developed later, home, and later public readings, even later, writers trade union organizations(Literary background, and others).
Thus, circles, salons and evenings, as regular forms of literary associations, are in close contact with each other, and in some epochs, for example, in the epoch of their decline at the end of the 40s of the 19th century, it is already difficult to draw a line between them.
Circles and salons acquire special significance for the writers, artists, scientists and musicians who meet there. Here there seems to be an exchange between representatives of different arts and sciences. The significance of this exchange is difficult to take into account, but there is no doubt that it will shed light on such complex phenomena as parallel and adequate changes in a number of arts and sciences. Romanticism, for example, we meet not only in poetry, but also in philosophy, and in music, and in painting, etc. Literary realism finds support in philosophical positivism, in realistic painting, etc. To understand the connection between these phenomena, if we abandon a priori constructions, is possible only by carefully studying the area where representatives of different arts directly collide with each other. And this is what we find in circles and salons. We also note that some types of cultural values, such as opera, require the participation of representatives of different arts, and if we know that the scenery for Glinka's opera A Life for the Tsar was written by Bryullov and that the text of the opera also contains Kukolnikov's poems, then naturally there is the question is, in what connection is this cooperation with the triumvirate that led the environment of the Puppeteer. Indeed, for the modern public, opera is not only a piece of music, but also a complex stage unity of different, but collective labor of united arts.
But even within the limits of one art one cannot fail to see the collective creative work of the circles. It is here, especially in the early periods of their history, that one can often find corrections of the literary works of one poet by others, it is here that the first criticism of the work is heard, and the creative ideas of the individual are discussed, and here a complot is created for the literary struggle with other parties to solve the literary problems of the time.
In the creation of a literary work, in the creation of the face of the writer and in the literary evolution, circles and salons take an active part. But precisely because all these moments are central questions of literary criticism, the literary significance of the circles and salons cannot be overestimated. Their literary function can be fulfilled by other factors as well. Not only his circle mates, but also his teacher can correct the poems of a novice poet. The inability, due to censorship, to print a number of works can greatly affect the writer's face, regardless of the circle or salon. Finally, literary evolution is not always associated with the life of circles and salons: in the second half of the 19th century, in the era of individual literature, it was formalized by other forces, for example, magazines.
After all, there were, finally, such circles and salons that did nothing for literary evolution. These were: for example, the Kukolnik milieu, the founders of the writer's bohemia. Confronted with the propriety of secular literary salons, they did not create anything that would leave any noticeable mark in literature. Analyzing their significance, A.N. Strugovshchikov very well reveals the evolutionary forces playing here.
“Despite Platon Kukolnik's butadas, I never stopped going to other evenings, where the Kukolnikov gathering was viewed with just prejudices. The blasphemers were right; they are not right in attacks on libations to Bacchus, from which the friends of Vielgorsky, Odoevsky and Sologub were not spoiled, which I witnessed - the censors were right that the entire puppeteer company did not introduce a single new thought into our literature, did not develop a single healthy social principle, just as the living rooms of our patrons, with their Zhukovsky v Vyazemsky. But the literary influence of the latter in the periods of the 1820s and 1830s was due to a different environment. The pogrom on December 14 took away for a long time the desire of the advanced people of society to interfere in the internal politics of our life, and the very ways to that were
obstructed. That is why the indisputable merits of the Zhukovskys and Vyazemskys had nothing to do with it. And just as the honor of Russian music belongs to Glinka, so the honor of a new, bold word belongs to people of a different class. That is why the good sides of the puppeteer circle did not atone for the absence of what both the time and the prepared soil required; and that it was prepared was proved by our literature of the forties of the 19th century, with its consequences in life ”.
A peculiar literary and everyday polemic between the trade direction and the literary aristocracy, reflected in the life of circles and salons, was in vain: the winner was the third force, which grew up in the atmosphere of the social and literary circles of Stankevich, Herzen and others.
Literary life is constantly changing. These changes cover not only the types and types of individual phenomena, but also concern large areas that transfer their literary and everyday function to each other. The function of circles and salons in Russian literature was, on the one hand, the connection between the reader and the writer, and on the other, the connection between the members of one literary party. The disintegration of circles and salons does not mean that literature has ceased to need this function: on the contrary, perhaps it is precisely the complication and expansion of this function that should explain the decline of literary circles and salons in the second half of the 19th century. With the development of the book industry, with the development of journalism, it became possible for a writers' association not connected with place and time, it became possible to propagate among readers who are not able to visit one or another literary salon.
In place of the mug and the salon is a magazine. In the second half of the 19th century. the meeting of the writers with each other and with the reader takes place there. There is no need for direct communication. But so that the magazine can take over
function of circles and salons, it took decades of stubborn struggle for the formation of readership, for the development of the Russian public. It really was a process of expanding Russian culture.
Another reason for the disintegration of circles and salons was the development of literary professionalism in Russia. The concept of professionalism is extremely fluid. The last historical and literary works find professional writers as early as the 18th century, precisely among writers and translators. However, upon closer inspection, it turns out that the literary professionalism of the 18th century. unlike those of its forms that took shape by the 50s of the 19th century. and which in a sense still exist today. The genealogy of this type of literary professionalism goes back to periodicals not earlier than the 1920s, to newspapers and magazines of the so-called "trade direction". It is here that certain relations are formed between the editor of the journal and his employees, it is here that the economy of the publication itself, as a commercial enterprise, is put in the basis of these relations.
The struggle of the "aristocrats" with the representatives of the "trade direction" ended in victory for the latter. It was a struggle to professionalize literature. Payment for literary labor in journals, division of labor in editorial offices is associated with this struggle and victory. By the 50s, the process of literary professionalization had taken shape completely. There was even a need for protection professional interests writer. This is the birthplace of the Literary Fund and other associations that have little in common with literary circles and salons of the 18th and first half of the 19th century.
Communication gives a person the formation of his personal foundations (values, emotions). Communication can be superficial and deep, businesslike (its content, what people are doing, and not those problems that affect their inner world) and everyday, existential (deep).
As the child grows up, the need for communication with peers appears more and more. It plays an important role in the development of self-awareness, in identifying their capabilities, in the formation of self-esteem. This need is especially clearly expressed in adolescence and adolescence, when the area of spiritual and intellectual communication of schoolchildren is expanding.
Communication is of great importance in the formation of the human psyche, its development and the formation of intelligent, cultural behavior. Through communication, a person acquires all his higher cognitive abilities and qualities.
Everyone knows that people unite according to their interests. For deeper communication, they find people with the same interests. This explains the so popular in the 19th century. circle communication.
Communication is traditional for Russian culture. In its conditions, literature played a dominant role. Mugs and salons of the 19th century. gathered the youth of the nobility.
Throughout the 19th, at the beginning of the 20th century, communication among adolescents in the environment of lyceums and gymnasiums quite often centered around literary almanacs, reading literature. Communication among the youth developed partly there, and, i.e. after 17 years it was participation in circles and salons, throughout Russian culture. They were created by publishing houses, houses, magazines.
The educational value of this communication consisted of:
- formation of ideals and value systems;
- education of literary taste;
- interest in literary and creative activities;
- development of the literary language;
- culture of communication, the ability to listen, argue, without humiliating
another.
Literature made possible an existential communication that touches on the meaning of the depth of one's ideas, which is lacking today.
Chapter 2. “Psychological - pedagogical conditions for adolescents' communication.
The state of communication of modern youth. Opportunities for communication in a family, school, leisure environment.
By the end of primary school age, children in their communication with people around them usually go beyond the family circle. If in preschool childhood and primary school age the child is almost completely surrounded by family and yard, then with the onset of adolescence, the situation changes radically. Now the child spends most of his time outside the family, at school, on the street, in communication with peers and other adults outside of his place of residence. And physically being at home, he is already actually (psychologically) for the most part already outside of him, reflecting and thinking about school and other non-family matters.
Psychological going outside the family is usually
accompanied by the strengthening of the educational role of communication with peers and adults, the role of self-education, the media and culture in education. There is a change in the social situation of development and the internal position of the student, as a result of which the processes of the formation of his personality are accelerated. All this is natural and usually takes place when the child's communication with the people around him is not limited to his parents, when he is not closed in the family circle and has the opportunity to go out on his own.
For the child, the school becomes an intermediate instance on the path of distance from the family.
A distinctive feature of adolescence and early adolescence is their craving for communication with peers and, as a consequence, some socio-psychological isolation from adults, accompanied by the formation of small, closed groups of friends living an autonomous, isolated life.
Adolescents and young men form closed age groups, psychologically isolated from adults, because they are very concerned about issues that they cannot openly discuss with anyone except their peers. In addition, children of this age have many specific interests, which they are able to satisfy mainly in direct communication with each other, since for adults their affairs may turn out to be uninteresting and not worthy of attention. Among these issues and interests there are many that are of great importance for personal development children of this age. Through communication organized with peers, adolescents and young men learn life goals and values, moral ideals, norms and forms of behavior. Trying themselves in contacts with each other, in joint affairs, in various roles, they learn role-based forms of behavior, form and develop their business qualities, learn to lead and obey, to be organizers of business and performers. Communication at this age is the most important school of self-education, to which adolescents and young men pay great attention.
In order for the opportunities available in communication to be maximized by children, it is necessary that they interact as much as possible not only with each other, but also with adults in a variety of matters and situations.
An increasing influence on the development of personality from adolescence begins to be exerted by the mass media and cultures, the goals and values of life that they promote, and patterns of behavior. The impact of the media on adolescents and adolescents is more difficult to manage than the impact of school and family. Nevertheless, here, too, there are certain possibilities for the purposeful regulation of educational influences. They are associated with assisting in the choice of media messages, the content of radio and television programs, in their commentary.
Children usually start to get interested in newspapers and magazines intended for adults from adolescence. If this process is not controlled, then given the episodic, random and irregular interests of children in reading newspapers and magazines for adults, their educational impact becomes unpredictable. As a result, children do not develop selective reading, without which it is difficult to navigate the huge flow of information coming from the multitude of newspapers and magazines published today.
When we talk about the need to manage the mass information that comes to children of middle and senior school age, we are not talking about artificially limiting a child's access to modern sources of mass information and culture. Rather, it means the need for children to form a certain taste, social position and culture, including aesthetic. The adults around the child, parents, other family members in this regard can provide him with invaluable help. Each of them reads something every day, hears and sees, has the opportunity to recommend something to read or watch to a teenager or young man, comment on the information they received.
Youth fashion and popular culture also have a great educational impact on children, and sometimes, due to the prevalence of such phenomena among young men and adolescents, it seems that the influence of fashion and mass culture is quite serious, stable and deep. In fact, this is not the case. Many hobbies of this kind are temporary and superficial, and pass with age. Anxiety should not be caused by these hobbies themselves, but by their long-term consequences, associated, for example, with the prolonged distraction of the attention of adolescents and young men from other, more serious sources of personal development. The temporality and passability of hobbies for fashion and mass culture does not mean that they have no effect at all on the personality of a teenager or young man. There is undoubtedly such an influence, but it is mediated by communication with peers who have the same hobbies and become objects of personal and behavioral imitation for children who communicate with them for a certain time. It is known, for example, that following the same fashion, showing interest in the same phenomena of mass culture are a signal for the people around them that their carriers and propagandists act as people of certain views. This guides adolescents and young men in choosing a circle of friends and acquaintances for communication. The same tastes for adolescents and young men are often a sign that their peers are worried about the same personal problems as themselves. This ensures interpersonal choice and selectivity in communication, and it, in turn, being closed on a certain circle of people, directs education.
Conclusion.
In modern society, there are many problems in the field of youth communication. In terms of content, communication is predominantly superficial, often progmatic, the features of a deeply personal dialogue are lost, which results in a lack of interest in another person. The phrase "These are your problems" - does not express a person's interest.
Weakening extracurricular and extracurricular activities. The destruction or commercialization of children's organizations has deprived modern adolescents of meaningful and creative leisure in communication.
The expansion of the technosphere of society, increased the role of passive interaction with TV and computer, made the Internet popular, which weakened the impatient personality-emotional nature of communication.
To date, intimate and trusting communication in the family has significantly decreased, either due to the employment of the parents, or due to the depressive state of the parents.
All this stimulated the meaninglessness of "parties", where, due to the conformism of adolescents and young men, drugs quickly gained popularity, the use of which today begins at the age of 10-11.
What pedagogical possibilities of correcting this situation do we see:
- Maximum popularization of family content
leisure activities, up to the creation of a fashion mechanism for family
leisure. - Expanding extracurricular and extracurricular activities with
involving students and parents in this activity.
3) Learning in the lessons of the culture of communication, through creative
Joint affairs and discussions.
4) Creation of a creative dialogue between teachers and psychologists with
creators and editors of television youth
programs and youth publications. Dialogue about content
culture of communication.
5) Conduct trainings in pedagogical colleges and universities
communication of futureteachers and educators.
Bibliography:
1) Ageev V.S.Intergroup interaction: social and psychological
Problems M., 1990.
2) Aroson M.I.Literary circles and salons. L., 1929
3) Bodalev A. A. Personality and communication. Fav. Proceedings. M., 1983.
4) Gershenzon M. Griboyedovskaya Moscow. M., 1914.
5) Kolominskiy Ya. L. Psychology of communication. M., 1974.
6) Zlobina E. G. Communication as a factor in personality development. K. 1981
7) Leont'ev A. A. Psychology of communication. Tartu, 1974
8) Mudrik A.V. Communication as a factor in the education of schoolchildren. M., 1984.
9) Nemov R.S. Psychology. Tartu, 1974
10) Novikova L.I. Pedagogy of the collective. M., 1978.
11) Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia. 2t. M., 1999.
12) Family education short vocabulary. M., 1992.
Communication is usually understood as a complex, multidimensional process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the need for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a joint strategy for interaction, perception and understanding of another person.
The dynamics and level of development of schoolchildren and students as subjects of life are largely determined by how their interaction with each other is organized, how interaction with teachers is ensured.
Consider the types of communication and their role in personality development. Material-practical the type of communication characterizes the subjects united common goal in joint activities. The content of such communication, as a rule, results in a material result. For example, the execution of the instructions of the team in preparation for the evening of rest, press conference. The semantic component of this type of communication is the readiness of each of its participants for concerted actions, for cooperation.
Spiritual and informational type of communication satisfies the individual's need for such a spiritual community, the tangible result of which is the increase in information about the Other in the process of mutual subject-subject interaction. The spiritual-informational level can permeate the content of material-practical communication, but it can also take place outside the sphere of material activity. It is important that the educational institution (school, university, etc.) creates conditions to meet the need for this type of communication.
Spiritual and practical type of communication satisfies a person's need for behavior that takes him out of the world of everyday life, everyday life. A striking example of spiritual and practical communication is the behavior of fans at the stadium, at public holidays. The dominant component of this type of communication is the reciprocity of reactions to what is happening, adherence to certain norms and rules of behavior.
In the rules of each of these types of communication, a person can actualize himself on two levels: creative and reproductive. Communication of a creative level occurs in situations of uncertainty, when the problem of communication cannot be solved in a stereotypical way and requires the generation of new operations, their correlation.
In the process of interaction, people with their appearance, gestures, facial expressions, behavior have a certain impact on the intentions, feelings, states of each other. Those characteristics of human behavior that are perceived by sight, hearing, sometimes touching are called external human behavior. Internal behavior is understood as the position of a person in relation to himself, the system of his views and values, ideas about what is necessary and beautiful, impermissible and ugly.
In real life, in the nature of communication with others, external behavior reflects the internal attitudes of a person.
In the theory of human behavior developed by P.M. Ershov, it is shown that in external behavior, i.e. in posture, gestures, facial expressions, all people basically behave the same. If you learn the essence of these behavioral positions, you can learn to receive information about the Other, which will help establish normal interpersonal relationships.
In speechless actions (this is what PM Ershov calls gestures, postures, facial expressions of a person), he distinguishes "mobilization" and "weight".
By "mobilization" is meant the psychological readiness to perform the forthcoming interaction with another person. From a physiological point of view, the state of mobilization is manifested in the "pleasant tension" of the back, in the gaze directed at the interlocutor. PM Ershov identifies 11 degrees of mobilization: from 0 to 10. If zero mobilization indicates the maximum mental relaxation that a person experiences during sleep, then 10 degree mobilization "speaks" of the maximum physical and mental stress of a person. In this degree of mobilization, people are only when their lives are threatened or when issues of vital importance to them are being resolved.
In the field of business communication, “mobilization 5” is most acceptable to those around him, when a person is collected, tucked up and his whole appearance “speaks” of his readiness to listen to the Other or to start the upcoming activity.
The degree of mobilization is "contagious": the person, towards whom the relaxing mobilization is chosen, immediately "tries to respond with the same mobilization." Knowing his "bodily sensations", regulating the degree of stress and relaxation of the psyche, a person can regulate the nature of interaction with others and, on its basis, establish optimal relations with others.
Equally significant "wordless action", according to P.M. Ershov, is "weight" as an indicator of emotional mood and physical well-being.
There are three types of emotional states and behavior of people:
« Heavy weight", Which" cries out "about the invisible weight lying on the shoulders of a person. Such a position sends a stream of negative emotions to those around, arouses in them heavy forebodings, a desire to avoid interaction with his "carrier". Of course, if grief fell on a person, his posture cannot but reflect this heaviness. We are talking about the fact that "heavy weight" is not shown as a constant line of behavior.
"A light weight"- this condition is the antipode of "heavy weight". It "notifies" others that the person is doing well. As a rule, a person in this state walks with a light gait, his movements are natural, graceful. He disposes of those around him.
“Weight” as a human condition manifests itself in certain correlations with the degree of mobilization: “light weight” with increased mobilization “gives” as a result a line of behavior, which is defined as “exuberant joy”; in combination with reduced mobilization - a line of behavior that is unproductive for interaction.
The third emotional state of a person a - “weight with dignity” evokes positive emotions in others. A person, whose emotional state can be defined as “weight with dignity,” “sends” wordless information to those around him that he is aware of his importance for the Other, that communication with him will be fruitful. In combination with the fifth mobilization, “weight with dignity” adequately reflects the image of a benevolent, energetic person who inspires confidence and is ready for interaction.
A person's wordless actions affect the subconscious of the Other, "informing" him about what will be said now: a benevolent greeting, a delicate question or a sharp remark, etc.
The trainings widely presented in the books of I. Kozlov “How to Treat Oneself and People”, V. Kapponi, T. Novak from the series “The Art of Being” help to bring up an ensemble of “wordless actions” that ensure the establishment of optimal communication with others: “ Himself a psychologist "," Himself an adult, a child and a parent ", etc.
The results of self-observation and observation can become the basis for mastering assertive communication technique... Its essence lies in the fact that a person learns to openly declare his desires and requirements; knows how to say “no” when needed; possesses the techniques of correctly responding to definite and indefinite criticism.
Possession of lexical strategies that allow you to achieve assertiveness develops in the practice of everyday communication. For example, the technology "free information" teaches to find in the words of the interlocutor the information that interests him or seems important. The achieved effect is manifested in the ability to overcome embarrassment in a conversation with a stranger and dispose him to talk about himself. The technology of "self-disclosure" teaches oneself to admit both the positive and negative aspects of one's character, behavior, lifestyle, helps to maintain a conversation and to weaken manipulations. The achieved effect is manifested in the ability to reveal oneself, to avoid the previously inherent feeling of misunderstanding, guilt, and anxiety.
Ya.L. Kolominsky emphasizes: “ Real world is largely unconsciously built on the basis of the linguistic norms of the language ... We see, hear, perceive in one way or another certain phenomena mainly due to the fact that the linguistic norms of our society presuppose this form expressions ".
Respect for a person's name belongs to the norms of the Russian and Belarusian languages. A proper name is not just a conventional sign to which its bearer and those around him are accustomed. A person's name is an attribute of his human dignity. The naming procedure for many peoples is accompanied by complex rituals and procedures. Therefore, the first rule that should be followed in communication may be this: "Be careful and attentive to the name of the person with whom you are entering into communication."
Speech culture demonstrates the true face of a person. Do you remember the tale of A.S. Pushkin's "The Tale of the Dead Princess and the Seven Heroes"? The young princess is being squeezed out of the light by the evil stepmother-queen. She orders Chernavka to take the princess into the wilderness and destroy her there. But the princess was miraculously saved. Tired and tattered, she reached a hut in the forest where seven heroic brothers lived.
The princess walked around the house,
I cleaned everything up,
She lit a candle to God
I flooded the stove hot ...
And when the brothers came home from work, the princess
I gave honor to the owners
She bowed deeply to the belt:
Blushing, she apologized
Why did she come to visit them,
Although she was not invited.
Instantly they recognized from their speech,
That the princess was accepted.
Special requirements are imposed on speech behavior because the words we pronounce often lead to conflicts, misinterpretation of the verbal content by another person.
P.M. Ershov claims that our speech consists of 11 basic verbal influences. For everyone interested in productive communication, it is important to know the constituent elements of speech and take into account their significance and impact on the personality in everyday life. P.M. Ershov emphasizes that all the main ways of verbal influences, except for one, are combined in pairs: order - ask; explain - get rid of; to recognize - to assert; surprise - warn; to reproach - to praise; call for.
Let's consider them in more detail. Couple "order - ask" is addressed to the will of our interlocutor in order to achieve momentary satisfaction of the needs of the one asking or ordering. But if we appeal to the will of another person, it is important to know and understand that the request and the order are perceived differently by the interlocutor. An order is a demand to obey the will of the ordering person, which can cause negative emotions in many. Making a request, on the other hand, causes less negative reaction from the other side. Hence, where possible, it is better to replace the order with a request. The order is appropriate only where and when and where it is the only possible condition for joint activities.
Verbal impact "explain - get rid of" are addressed to the intelligence of the interlocutor. If we want to be understood by the other side, it is necessary to "peer" into the eyes of the interlocutor, to see how he perceives our explanation, whether he has lost interest in him. The explanation is a kind of "recruiting like-minded people to their side." In everyday situations, the explanation is carried out in an increased emotional state, which can be perceived as reproaches, resentment against the listener, aggression against him. The content of the explained goes to a secondary level or is not perceived at all by the communication partner. Communication in this case, the goal does not reach and is unproductive.
The same picture develops in those situations when, instead of explaining, the interlocutor “gets rid of” him. In this case, negative emotions arise in the questioner: he feels himself to be in the way, to those who do not want to listen to, to see. Therefore, it is important to remember that the "explanation - trimming" addressed to the human intellect should be carried out calmly and reasoned, then we have more chances to be adequately perceived and understood by our interlocutor.
Communication can be destructive or productive depending on the verbal behavior when using verbs "To recognize - to assert"... Verbal actions expressed by these verbs, addressed to the memory of the interlocutor... But if the basis of recognition is the desire to extract something from the interlocutor's memory, then the basis of the statement is to affirm something in it. Recognition, which cannot offend the interlocutor, is based on a precisely formulated question that reflects a genuine interest in the interlocutor. For example: "I am interested to know why ...", "I want to learn more ...", "I really need to know ..." These questions are perceived by the other side adequately and stimulate the memory.
In everyday communication, we often hear questions that are not, in essence, actions aimed at recognition. Here's an example: "Why are you constantly late?" The purpose of such a question is not to learn anything, but to make a remark, to demonstrate your negative attitude towards a person. If, in our interaction with another person, we want to put certain information into his memory, i.e. "To assert" something, it is important to take care that the amount of information is not too large: otherwise memorization will not take place.
Productive communication of people in the implementation of verbal influences "recognize" - "approve" may be provided that each of them knows what he wants and how he should act now.
Addressee impact "Surprise" - "warn" is an human imagination... Productive communication in such a situation unfolds against an emotional background. At the same time, the desire of one person to enrich the personality of another with pleasant and useful techniques and means is important. Lies and intimidation are excluded.
Verbal actions "reproach" - "praise" are addressed to the emotional and moral sphere of the individual. Therefore, the productivity of communication depends on the general tone and mood of the participants in the communication. Words of praise spoken sincerely and with a desire to please a person can change his mood and behavior. The same applies to reproaches. Communication becomes unproductive in those cases when a person does not know how to sincerely and essentially raise the mood of another. It becomes just as unproductive in those cases when the other does not know how to correctly perceive and evaluate the actions of a person who seeks to change the well-being of others for the better.
The verbal influence “to call” stands apart. It is designed to attract and activate the attention of the other (others) to the one calling. An appeal to another contains a large amount of information that sets the tone for all subsequent communication. Turning to a person, you can express dissatisfaction or admiration, tune in to the upcoming communication or cool down the desire to communicate.
The reasons for destructive (Latin destructivus - destructive, sterile) unproductive communication can be classified according to the source of its motivation. It can be a low level of moral culture of the individual, which manifests itself in rudeness, impudence, offensive expressions, disinterested attitude towards the interlocutor, provocative remarks addressed to him, in violation of dignity, demonstration of superiority, etc.
Communication can also be ineffective when a person who has a positive attitude towards others does not know the techniques of productive communication. This lack of possession is found in the limited speech code of a person.
There are linguistic technologies that allow people to change for the better the style of their relationships with others, to introduce self-control in the process of communicating with other people. Having mastered a special language, a person can start not only speak differently, but also see events differently, otherwise understand them and react to them. Such productive technologies are based on the use of images of the Wolf and the Giraffe, personifying opposite life strategies.
The language of the "Wolf" is the language of aggression, violence, coercion, demand. He dominates in an environment oversaturated with stress, conflicts, disrespect for the interlocutor. The language of the "Wolf" is used by those who are not aware of what they really need. Therefore, he cannot express his wishes, requests to others. As a rule, these requests do not meet with a response from people. Therefore, "Wolf" believes that the strategy of violence, aggression, orders, commands such as "you must", "you must" are more effective. The "wolf" understands that due to his aggression, focus on his interests and desires, he is not interesting to anyone. His inner world is impoverished by himself. His own creativity is not developed, so he makes him fulfill the requirements developed by others. Having limited the means of his communication with threats and orders, the "Wolf" lives simply.
"Giraffe", on the other hand, always has its own point of view. He rejects violence against others. His way of self-assertion is a non-violent belief that requires a deep understanding of the interlocutor. "Giraffe" is sure that there are no "Wolves" among people. He strives to live in peace with everyone, he is sure that there are words that need to be said, and words that need not be said. He weighs each word, reflects on his words and analyzes the reaction to each of them of his interlocutor.
It is not only the language of the "Wolf" and "Giraffe" that is different. Their life strategies are different. The goal of the "Wolf" is to achieve the goal in the shortest possible way, by any means. For the Giraffe, an end cannot be an excuse for a means of achieving it. Everyone can master the Giraffe language. For this, it is important to learn to find new sides and qualities in relationships with relatives and friends, colleagues and classmates, classmates, to see new value systems in everyday life and reflect them in your speech.
Similar information.
One of the most important factors in the formation of a personality is communication. Communication plays an important role in personality formation. This theory was developed in the works of Russian psychologists: Ananyev V.G., Bodalev A.A., Vygotsky L.S., Leontyev A.N., Luria A.R., Myasishchev V.N., Petrovsky A.V. ... and etc. .
Zimnyaya I.A. believes that communication is a very young problem of the twentieth century, if in Ancient Greece and in Ancient rome oratory was studied within the framework of rhetoric, heuristics and dialectics, then at the present stage the problem of communication is studied already from the point of view of philosophy, sociology, social psychology, general psychology, pedagogy, educational psychology.
Speech communication is widely studied all over the world. Special centers for the study of communication have been established (for example, the Carnegie Center). important questions of the problem of communication were posed and considered in the most general form by Cicero. There are many approaches to communication. From the standpoint of the activity approach Leontyev A.N., Andreeva G.M. communication is a complex multidimensional process of establishing and developing contacts between people generated by the needs for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a single strategy of interaction, perception and understanding of another person.
Shchedrovinsky G.P., Leontiev A.N., Ryzhov V.V., Gusev G.I. suggest that communication is a type of activity. Communication is the interaction of people, the content of which is the mutual exchange of ideas, etc. in order to establish certain relationships. Communication, firstly, is a special type of activity (communicative activity), secondly, a condition for the implementation of any activity, and thirdly, the result of a special assigned activity.
Relationship development acts as a leading activity in infancy, preschool and adolescence.
At the same time, in different periods of personality development, it has its own characteristics: in infancy it is direct emotional communication, in the preschool period it is a play activity during which the child masters relationships between people, in adolescence - the further development of relationships between people, but already at a higher level compared to the preschool period.
Elkonin D.B., Dragunova T.V., Kagan adhere to another point of view. Communication takes on the status of the leading type of activity and has an intimate and personal character, the subject of communication is another person - a peer, and the content is the construction and maintenance of personal relationships with him, socially useful activity acts as the leading type of adolescent activity, in the process of which further occurs the development of various forms of relationships with peers, with adults, and, according to D.I.
One of the main tendencies of adolescence is the reorientation of communication from parents, teachers and, in general, elders to peers who are more or less equal in status.
A. V. Mudrik notes that the need for communication with peers who cannot be replaced by parents arises in children very early and increases with age. A. V. Mudrik believes that the behavior of adolescents is collective and group. He explains this specific behavior of adolescents as follows:
communication teenager difficulty prevention
Firstly, communication with peers is a very important channel of information, through which adolescents learn many things that adults do not tell them for one reason or another:
secondly, it is a specific type of mechanical relationship. Group play and other types of joint activities develop the necessary skills of social interaction, the ability to obey collective discipline and at the same time defend their rights.
thirdly, it is a specific type of emotional contact. Consciousness of group belonging, solidarity, comradely mutual assistance gives the adolescent a sense of well-being and stability.
Relationships with comrades are at the center of a teenager's life and largely determines all other aspects of his behavior and activities. Bozhovich L.I. notes that if at primary school age the basis for uniting children is most often joint activity, then among adolescents, on the contrary, the attractiveness of classes and interests are mainly determined by the possibility of broad communication with peers. By the beginning of adolescence, children come with different experience of communicating with their comrades: for some children it already occupies a considerable place in life, for others it is limited only to school.
Over time, communication with comrades more and more goes beyond the study and school, includes new interests, activities, hobbies and turns into an independent and very important sphere of life for adolescents. Communication with comrades becomes so attractive and important that teaching is relegated to the background, the possibility of communication with parents no longer looks so attractive.
The communication traits and communication styles of boys and girls are not exactly the same.
At first glance, boys of all ages are more sociable than girls. From an early age, they are more active than girls in making contacts with other children, starting joint games. However, the difference between the sexes in the level of sociability is not so much quantitative as qualitative. Although fussing and power games bring tremendous emotional satisfaction to boys, they usually have a competitive spirit, often the game turns into a fight. The content of joint activities and their own success in it mean more for the boys than the presence of individual sympathy for other participants in the game. Girls' communication looks more passive, but more friendly and selective. Boys first come into contact with each other, and only then, in the course of play or business interaction, they develop a positive attitude, there is a craving for each other. Girls, on the contrary, come into contact mainly with those they like, the content of joint activities for them is relatively secondary.
WITH early age boys tend to be more extensive, and girls to intensive communication, boys more often play in large groups, and girls - in twos or threes.
According to I.O. the psychology of communication in adolescence and adolescence is built on the basis of a contradictory interweaving of two needs: isolation (privatization) and aphorilization, i.e. need for belonging, inclusion in a group or community.
Isolation most often manifests itself in emancipation from adult control. The feeling of loneliness and restlessness associated with the age-related difficulties of personality formation gives rise to an indefatigable thirst for communication and grouping with peers in adolescents in whose society they are or hope to find what adults refuse them: spontaneity, salvation from boredom and recognition of their own worth.
It is important for a teenager not only to be together with peers, but, and, most importantly, to occupy a position that satisfies him among them. For some, this desire may be expressed in the desire to take the position of a leader in the group, for others - to be recognized, beloved comrade, for others - an indisputable authority in some matter, but in any case it is the leading motive of adolescent behavior, external manifestations of the communicative behavior of younger adolescents are highly controversial.
On the one hand, the desire to be the same as everyone else at all costs, on the other, the desire to stand out, to distinguish oneself at any cost; on the one hand, the desire to earn the respect and authority of comrades, on the other, flaunting their own shortcomings.
DI. Feldstein identifies three forms of communication between adolescents: intimate-personal, spontaneous-group, socially-oriented.
Intimate - personal communication - interaction based on personal sympathies - "I" and "you".
Intimate-personal communication occurs under the condition of common values of partners, and participation is provided by understanding each other's thoughts, feelings and intentions, empathy. the highest forms of intimate and personal communication are friendship and love.
Spontaneous group communication - interaction based on casual contacts - "I" and "they". The spontaneous-group nature of communication between adolescents dominates in the event that socially useful activities of adolescents are not organized.
This type of communication leads to the emergence of all sorts of teenage companies, informal groups,
in the process of spontaneous group communication, aggressiveness, cruelty, increased anxiety, isolation, etc. acquire a stable character.
Socially-oriented communication - interaction based on the joint implementation of socially important matters - "I" and "society".
Socially-oriented communication serves the social needs of people and is a factor contributing to the development of forms of social life of groups, collectives, organizations, etc.
What is communication? We will define this concept in order to know what will be discussed here further.
Communication is yesterday's conversation with a friend on the phone, a conversation with a stranger in a train compartment, an evening of memories at a meeting of classmates, and much more.
This concept has no boundaries, its scope is infinite, which means, as the outstanding Soviet psychologist L.S. Vygotsky, when the volume of a concept tends to infinity, its content tends to zero. Scientific ideas about communication are quite contradictory.
Communication is a complex multidimensional process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a single strategy of interaction, perception and understanding of another person. In practice, the two concepts of "communication" and "attitude" are often confused or equated.
These concepts are not the same. Communication is the process of realizing one or another relationship.
The study of the problem of communication in psychology has its own tradition, and psychologists usually distinguish the following three periods for the development of the problem of communication:
1. Research by V.М. Bekhterev - he for the first time raises the question of the role of communication as a factor in the mental development of a person about the influence of a group on an individual.
2. Until the 70s. in the development of the problem of communication, the theoretical and philosophical approach prevailed.
For example, in the concept of higher mental functions of L.S. Vygotsky, communication occupies a central place - as a factor in the mental development of a person, the conditions for his self-regulation.
3. In the 70s. communication begins to be seen as an independent area psychological research.
This is the period of the true birth of the problem of communication in psychology.
The specificity of the current stage in the development of the communication problem lies in the period from research "in communication conditions" to the study of the process itself, its characteristics in the transformation of the communication problem into an object of psychological research at all levels of analysis - theoretical, empirical, applied.
Communication is a multifaceted process of developing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities. Human communication resembles a kind of pyramid consisting of four faces: we exchange information, interact with other people, get to know them and, as well as experience our own states that arise as a result of communication.
Communication can be seen as a way of bringing people together, as well as a way of developing them.
Communicating with other people, a person learns common human experience, historically social norms, values, knowledge and ways of acting, as well as formed as a person. Communication is the most important factor in human mental development.
By its intended purpose, communication is multifunctional. There are 5 main functions of communication:
1. The pragmatic function of communication.
It is realized when people interact in the process of joint activities.
2. Formative function of communication.
It manifests itself in the process of forming and changing the mental appearance of a person. At certain stages of development, the behavior, activity and attitude of the child to the world and to himself is mediated in his communication with adults. Communication between a child and an adult is not only the transfer to the first of the sum of skills and abilities, and knowledge that he mechanically learns, but also a complex process of mutual influences, enrichments and changes. The child accepts, reproduces and realizes the experience of other people.
3. Confirmation function.
in the process of communicating with other people, a person gets the opportunity to know, confirm and confirm himself.
Wanting to establish himself in his existence and his value, a person is looking for a fulcrum in other people.
4. The functions of organizing and maintaining interpersonal relationships.
the perception of other people and the maintenance of various relationships with them for any person is invariably associated with evaluating people and establishing certain emotional relationships - we are either positive or negative in our sign.
5. The intrapersonal function of communication is realized in a person's communication with himself (through internal or external speech, built according to the type of dialogue).
in social psychology, there are three types of interpersonal communication:
Communication takes place in an open, direct form.
in this case, the communication partner is considered not as a full-fledged participant, but as an object of influence, he acts in a passive "passive" form.
Manipulative communication - it is a form of interpersonal communication, in which the influence on the communication partner in order to achieve their intentions is carried out secretly.
In manipulative communication, the partner is perceived not as an integral unique personality, but as a carrier of certain properties and qualities "necessary" for the manipulator.
The professions of a teacher and a psychologist can be attributed to the most confirmed manipulative deformation. there is always an element of manipulation in the learning process (to make the lesson more interesting, to motivate the children, to attract their attention).
Dialogue communication- This is an equal subject-subject interaction, with the goal of mutual, self-knowledge of communication partners.
It is possible only if a number of relationship rules are observed:
1. The presence of a psychological attitude to the current state of the interlocutor and their own actual psychological state (following the principle of "here and now").
2. The use of non-judgmental perception by the personality of a partner, setting on trust in his intentions.
3. Perception of a partner as an equal, entitled to their own opinions and decisions.
We will characterize the structure of communication by highlighting three related parties: communicative, interactive and perceptual.
Communicative side of communication is the exchange of information between people. Speaking of communication, we mean the exchange between people with different ideas, ideas, interests, moods, feelings, attitudes, and the like.
In the context of such communication, information is not only transmitted, but also formed, refined, and developed.
Information in communication is not just transferred from one partner to another, there is an exchange.
the main goal information exchange in communication - the development of a common meaning, a unified point of view and agreement on various situations or problems.
For interpersonal communication, a feedback mechanism is characteristic. there are direct and indirect connections.
Indirect feedback is a veiled form of transferring psychological information to a partner.
To do this, they usually use various rhetorical questions, ridicule, ironic remarks, emotional reactions unexpected for the partner, for which the partner is not ready, in this case, the communicator himself must guess what the recipient wants to say to him.
Direct and feedback, when information comes from the recipient in an open, unambiguous form.
This is sincere, direct communication. Communicative communication is presented on two levels:
verbal level - speech is used as a means of transmitting information, as a unique familiar means developed in the process of cultural and historical development.
The non-verbal level includes gestures, facial expressions, pantomime, voice timbre, its range, tonality, posture, laughter, coughing, crying, sighing, space organization, distance between communication partners at the time of communication.
Interactive side of communication is the organization of interaction between individuals, i.e. in the exchange of not only knowledge and ideas, but also actions. in the course of communication, its participants can not only exchange information, but also organize an exchange of actions, plan common activities, develop forms and norms of joint actions. Communication can be viewed as a transaction.
Transactional analysis is a direction that involves the regulation of the actions of the participants in the interaction through the regulation of their proportions, as well as taking into account the nature of situations and the style of interaction.
The theory was created by E. Bern in 1955 in the USA, the theory is based on the concept of a transaction - an action or action directed at another person, it is a unit of communication. E. Bern conducted a structural analysis of behavior, thoughts, feelings, desires and generalized it. He gave a description of the three elementary spheres that are in every person.
1. Every person was once a child.
2. Each person had parents or parenting adults who took their place.
3. Every person with a healthy brain is able to adequately assess the surrounding reality.
E. Bern identified 3 states:
1. I am the "Child";
2. I am the "Parent";
3. I am an "adult".
in every person there are three "I": parent, child, adult.
"Child" is a dependent, submissive and unrequited being. speaking in the "Child" position, a person looks subordinate and unsure of himself.
The "parent" is independent, disobedient and taking responsibility upon himself. in the "Parent" position - self-confident and aggressive ("from above").
"adult" - who knows how to reckon with the situation, can understand the interests of others and distribute responsibility between himself and the people around him. in the position of "adult" - correct and restrained ("beside"), each of these three "I" simultaneously "live and coexist" in each person, but their manifestation and dominance depends on specific situation communication at a given moment.
"I am a child" arises and is developed in childhood, at that age due to imitation of elders and the desire to be in their place, as for "I am an adult", it develops for a long time, sometimes decades due to the life experience of the subject and the accumulation of that , which is called worldly wisdom.
For the harmonious development of relations, an even and proportional manifestation of the three "I" is desirable, depending on the situation and life tasks, regardless of who it is - a woman, a man, a child, an old man.
Eric Berne identified four life scenarios that are programmed in childhood:
1. I am bad - you are good. Low self-esteem, a person is a loser. in an early situation, normal personality development is impossible.
for all his failures, a person blames only himself.
2. I am good - you are bad.
Egoists with high self-esteem, arrogant, disrespectful to other people, tend to blame everyone around them.
3. I am bad - you are bad. The person is depressed, in an aggressive situation. They don't accept me, and I don't accept anyone.
A person who gets little attention.
This position destroys the person himself.
4. I'm good - you're good. A person has an objective assessment of other people and himself.
Perceptual communication side means the process of perception of each other by communication partners and the establishment on this basis of mutual understanding. The idea of another person depends on the level of development of one's own self-awareness, the idea of one's own "I".
The main means of communication is language.
Language is a system of signs that serves as a means of human communication, mental activity, a way of expressing a person's self-awareness.
Signs are of great importance in the process of communication.
A sign is any material object (object, phenomenon, event) that acts as an indication and designation and is used to acquire, store, process and transmit information.
In addition to the meaning common to all individuals, a sign can have its own subjectively colored personal meaning for each.
It is spawned personal experience a person, his desires, hopes, fear, other feelings.
in the afterword to the work of L.S. Vygotsky "Thinking and Speech" by his associate A.R. Luria speaks of the meaning of the word as an "internal meaning" which ". Has the word for the speaker himself and which constitutes the subtext of the utterance."
The words "Carriage to me, carriage!" does not mean only that Chatsky points to the carriage and asks for it to be brought.
the inner meaning of the statement lies in the fact that Chatsky breaks with an unacceptable society for him, and the hero's exclamation is not at all a transmission of a specific event, but a "lump of meaning" that stands behind it.
Characteristics and content of communication. Mechanisms of influence in the process of communication.
There are two types of communication: verbal and non-verbal. Communication carried out using words is called verbal ( from lat. § verbalis - verbal).
In non-verbal communication, the means of transmitting information are non-verbal (non-verbal) signs (postures, gestures, facial expressions, intonation, views, territorial location, etc.).
Live speech contains a lot of information contained in the so-called non-verbal elements of communication, among which are the following.
1. Poses, gestures, facial expressions. in general, they are perceived as general motor skills of various parts of the body (hands - gestures, faces - facial expressions, posture - pantomime).
This general motor skills reflects a person's emotional responses. It is these features that are called kinetics.
2. Paralinguistics or prosody - features of pronunciation, timbre of voice, its height and volume, rate of speech, pauses between words, phrases, laughter, crying, sighing, speech errors, peculiarities of organizing contact
Paralinguistic and extralinguistic systems are "additions" to verbal communication.
3. Prosemica (from the English proximity - proximity). The founder of proxemics, E. Hall, called it spatial psychology.
4. Visual communication - eye contact.
Non-verbal communication is most often used to establish emotional contact with the interlocutor and maintain it during the conversation, to record how well a person controls himself, and also to obtain information about what people really think about others.
American psychologist J. Trager called non-verbal means of communication an emotional language, since most often they "tell" us exactly about the feelings of the interlocutor.
What can non-verbal communication means?
firstly, they are able to point out to the interlocutor the especially important points of the message.
secondly, non-verbal means of communication complement the content of the utterance.
thirdly, non-verbal means of communication indicate an attitude towards the interlocutor, since they express the feelings of the speaker.
fourthly, non-verbal means of communication make it possible to judge the person himself, about his state at the moment, psychological qualities ... The main mechanisms of cognition of another person in the process of communication areidentification, empathy and reflection.
Identification ( from lat. identifico - identification, assimilation) expresses the fact that one of the simplest ways to understand another person is to assimilate oneself to him.
Empathy - this is the ability To comprehending the emotional state of another person in the form of empathy.
The term "empathy" was introduced by E. Titchener, who said: "I not only see importance, modesty or pride in others. I feel these traits, I play them in my mind."
The process of understanding each other is complicated by the phenomenon reflections ( from lat. reflexio - referring back).
This is not just knowing or understanding a partner, but knowing how a partner understands me, a kind of doubled process of mirroring relationships with each other.
Infection. v in its most general form, it can be defined as the unconscious involuntary susceptibility of a person to certain mental states. It manifests itself through the transmission of a certain emotional state or, in the words of the famous psychologist B.D. Parygin, mental attitude.
Suggestion. This is a deliberate unreasoned influence of one person on another. With suggestion (suggestion), the process of transferring information is carried out, based on its uncritical perception. The effect of suggestion depends on age: children are more susceptible to suggestion than adults. Tired, physically weakened people are more suggestible. It has been experimentally proven that the decisive condition for effective suggestion is the authority of the one who inspires.
Belief. Use rationale to obtain agreement from the person receiving the information. Belief is an intellectual impact on the consciousness of a person through an appeal to her own critical judgment.
Imitation It is not a simple acceptance of the external features of another person's behavior that is carried out, but the reproduction of the features and images of the demonstrated behavior by him.
The perceptual side of communication
What stands for us behind the words "perception and understanding of the other in communication"
In order to understand this, it is necessary to answer the following questions.
How is the first impression formed?
How is the perception and understanding of the other in long-term communication?
How do we understand the actions of a partner?
How is self-presentation (self-presentation) manifested in communication?
First impression
Psychologists have discovered several typical schemes according to which the image of another person is built and which, to one degree or another, are used by all people. The construction of the image of a partner according to these schemes sometimes leads to the so-called effects of first impressions or systematic errors of social perception. Knowledge of these patterns can help to understand how the first impression of a person is formed:
in the experiments of A.A. Bodalev's groups of subjects were asked to describe a person from a photograph. Before showing the same photo, one group was given to understand that it was a photo of a hero, and another of a criminal.
depending on the proposed status of a person, the descriptions were changed.
Here are the descriptions of the criminal "A man who is lowered, very embittered, untidy dressed, unkempt. One might think that before becoming a criminal, he was an employee or an intellectual. A very evil look."
And here is the description of the hero; "Very strong-willed face. Nothing afraid of eyes look sullenly. Lips are compressed, spiritual strength and firmness are felt. The expression on the face is proud."
In case of inequality errors, the perception scheme is as follows. When we meet a person who is superior to us in some important parameter for us, we evaluate him somewhat more positively than it would be if he was equal to us.
If we are dealing with a person whom we surpass in some way, then we underestimate him. It is very important to remember that superiority is recorded in one parameter, while overestimation (or underestimation) occurs in many parameters. These errors can be called superiority factor.
No less important and recognizable are the mistakes related to whether we like our communication partner outwardly or not. These mistakes consist in the fact that if we like a person (outwardly), then at the same time we tend to consider him better, smarter, more interesting, etc. (i.e., again, overestimate many of his psychological characteristics). We deal with attractiveness factor - the more outwardly attractive a person is to us, the better he is in all respects; if he is unattractive, then his other qualities are underestimated.
The following diagram, those people who treat us well, seem to us much better than those who treat us badly. This is a manifestation of the so-called factor "attitude to us".
American psychologists R. Nisbet and T. Wilson conducted the following experiment. For half an hour, the students talked to the new teacher, who behaved kindly with some of the subjects, with dismissals with others, emphasizing social distance. The students were then asked to rate a number of teacher characteristics. The results were pretty straightforward. The grades of the benevolent teacher turned out to be significantly higher than the grades of the "detached" one.
A positive attitude towards us generates a strong tendency to ascribe positive qualities and "discard" negative ones, and vice versa - a negative attitude causes a tendency to ignore the positive aspects of the partner and highlight the negative ones. The three types of mistakes we have considered in the formation of the first impression are called halo effect. The halo effect is manifested in the fact that when the first impression is formed, a general positive impression about a person leads to an overestimation of the unknown person.
All three of these factors cover almost all possible communication situations. The primary perception of another person is always wrong. The image of a partner that is created upon meeting is a regulator of subsequent behavior, it is necessary in order to correctly and effectively build communication in a given situation. Our communication is built depending on who we communicate with, and there are different communication techniques for each category of partners.
Research shows that we have two main sources of information at our disposal to determine the parameter of superiority:
1) a person's clothing, his entire image;
2) the manner of a person's behavior (how he sits, walks, talks, where he looks, etc.).
In addition to these two signs, we have no others. But these sources are really significant only because the information is embedded in them in accordance with historically established stereotypes.
In the demeanor, as in clothing, there are always elements that make it possible to judge the status of a person ("What befits Jupiter is not befitting a bull," an ancient saying goes). That is why all of us, by our demeanor, can determine our equality or inequality with another person.
What is superiority in demeanor? Most likely, it can be defined as independence in different situations and circumstances.
This includes, first of all, independence from a partner: a person shows that he is not interested in the one with whom he communicates, his reaction, mood, state or what he is talking about.
Such external independence can also look like arrogance, arrogance, self-confidence, etc. Independence from the communication situation is revealed in the following: a person does not seem to notice some of its aspects - the presence of witnesses, an unsuccessfully chosen moment, various hindrances, etc. This behavior almost always indicates a certain superiority.
A too relaxed posture (for example, lounging in a chair) during an important conversation can mean superiority in a situation, power.
It also happens that a person looks to the side, out the window, examines his nails - this is a clear demonstration of superiority, power (by the way, addicted people usually look carefully at the interlocutor, "look into the eyes").
If a person speaks incomprehensibly to the interlocutor, uses many special "terms, foreign words, ie does not strive to be understood, then such behavior is sometimes recorded as intellectual superiority.
A manner of behavior can contain signs of superiority for various reasons: due to real superiority, objective or only subjective, and also due to situational superiority. Of course, the perception of superiority is influenced by the entire experience of a person and his inner position. Note that the effect of the superiority factor begins when a person fixes the superiority of the other over himself by signs in his clothes and demeanor.
Long-term communication in constant communication, the results of the first impression continue to operate... in constant communication, a deeper and more objective understanding of the partner becomes important.
Communicating with a partner, we receive a large amount of information about him, his condition and experiences.
It is also known that the ability to adequately perceive other individuals is different for different people.
A person's face, his gestures, facial expressions, the general style of expressive behavior, gait, his manner of standing, sitting, habitual postures and their change during a conversation, spatial orientation in relation to partners - all this has a certain content and carries information about the internal states of a person.
What most attracts our attention in the appearance of another person is his face.
Indeed, you can make a "smart" face and thereby influence the opinion of yourself, and besides, the face is often "spiritualized", "funny", "enlightened", "gloomy", etc.
Thus, the first thing that is reflected in a person's face is emotions.
There are seven basic facial expressions: happiness, surprise, fear, suffering, anger, disgust (or contempt), and interest.
The direction of gaze plays an important role when reading information "from the face".
However, although the face is the main source of psychological information, nevertheless in many situations it is much less informative than we think.
This is due to the fact that facial expressions are well controlled by a person, despite the widespread notion that a person can betray a person even when he does not want it ("as it is written on the face").
Under certain circumstances(for example, following the rules of etiquette) when a person wants to hide his feelings, the face becomes uninformative, and the body becomes the main source of information for the partner. Some psychologists even refer to the body as a "leakage of information" about our state of mind.
The gait, for example, is also one of the most important keys to understanding a person's inner state. No wonder the gait is so recognizable - it is strictly individual. It is quite easy to recognize the emotional state of a person by walking. Moreover, it turned out that the "heaviest" gait is in a state of anger, the longest stride is in a state of pride. When a person experiences suffering, he almost does not wave his arms, they "hang" - and if he is happy, then he "flies", he has more frequent and lighter steps.
Our actions in communication. For each of us, the construction of interaction with another person largely depends on understanding the origins of actions and their causes. The ways and mechanisms of such an understanding could not fail to interest psychologists, therefore, a whole direction arose: the study of the processes and results of causal attribution (attribution of causes) of behavior.
How does a person explain the behavior of others in practice?
For example, someone is late for a date with their buddies.
One of the waiters believes that this is due to the poor work of transport, the other suggests that being late is the result of the frivolity of the one who is late, the third begins to doubt whether he has told the late person who is late for another, incorrect meeting place, and the fourth believes that they are deliberately made to wait ... Everyone has their own ideas about the reason for being late.
The first sees it in the circumstances, the second - especially the personality of the late, the third sees the reason in himself, and the fourth considers the delay deliberate and purposeful. The reasons for being late are motivated in completely different ways, and this is due to the fact that friends carry out attribution differently.
When does causal attribution occur? The need for it appears in those cases when unexpected obstacles and difficulties arise on the path of joint activity. When difficulties and conflicts arise, as well as a clash of interests or views, people resort to causal attribution of their own or someone else's behavior and thus try to influence further events. Moreover, the more difficulties we encounter in interaction, the more seriously we approach the search for the causes of these difficulties.
Self-presentation in communication
At least two people are involved in communication, and each of them can actively influence the perception of a partner. It is this ability to intervene in the process of forming one's own image with a partner and is called self-feeding ( some authors - self-presentation, self-presentation). Essentially, self-serving is about managing attention.
Self-feed of superiority. In order to be effective, this mechanism of social perception must rely on some objective signs, signs of superiority - clothing, manner of speech and behavior.
For example, one person's fashionable youth clothing will affect those around them only if it is viewed against the background of the unfashionable clothing of others. When everyone is dressed the same, this factor will not work.
If we need to hide superiority, then we must take care of the opposite.
When a young girl puts on a strict dark gray suit, everyone understands that she is not going to dance. it is probably extremely important for her to emphasize her status - she needs to veil her youth, to emphasize some formality.
While it is easy enough to show superiority with clothing, it is much more difficult to emphasize superiority in demeanor. Self-serving attraction. Attractiveness is also a matter of control. Moreover, if self-presentation of superiority is not always important for a person, then self-presentation of attractiveness is important for everyone. The rule of self-presentation of attractiveness is very simple: it is not clothing in itself that makes us attractive, but the work that we spend on bringing it in line with our external data.
Self-serving relationship. Indeed, it is always very important to be able to show your partner your attitude towards him - often good, but sometimes bad.
We are well aware that a frown, a look to the side or past the interlocutor does not dispose others to such a partner, while a smile, a nod of agreement or an open look help to establish contact. But, of course, here, too, our knowledge and ideas are more intuitive than accurate. What is "open gaze"? Usually a direct gaze is interpreted as an expression of good feelings.
But there is one significant exception. If someone looks at us directly, intently, continuously and persistently, then such a defiant look is often interpreted as a sign of hostility rather than friendliness.
Ways of self-presentation of attitude towards us can be divided into verbal and non-verbal. The arsenal of non-verbal means is diverse: you can show your attitude both with a nod of your head and with a glance.
But, perhaps, the most important are the posture and position of the body in relation to the interlocutor.
If we turned our face to the interlocutor, then this demonstrates one attitude, with our backs - another. This can be seen very well in children: if a child loves an adult, then he tries to be as close to him as possible, and if he does not love, then he runs away or hides. If it is not customary for adults to turn their backs to the interlocutor, then children do this constantly: when they are offended, they turn away, stand sideways, look sullenly. these are all signs of a certain attitude.
It is very important that verbal and non-verbal means do not contradict each other: the coincidence of these means increases trust in a person.
Self-presentation of the actual state and reasons for behavior
Self-presentation is objectively present in any communication, whether a person wants it or not. This means that in any situation it can serve as a source of errors in the perception of another person. Self-serving plays an important role in friendships and business relationships.
The communicative side of communication
Communication - it is communication, i.e. exchange of opinions, experiences, moods, desires, etc.
Barriers to misunderstanding. in many situations, a person is faced with the fact that his words, his desires and motives are somehow incorrectly perceived by the interlocutor, "do not reach" him.
Communication is influence; therefore, if communication is successful, there must be some change in the perception of the world of the person to whom it is addressed.
Avoidance. This implies avoiding sources of influence, avoiding contacts with a partner.
Avoidance as a form of protection from exposure is manifested not only in the fact that the individual avoids certain people, but also in avoiding certain situations.
Misunderstanding. Quite often, some potentially dangerous information for a person can also come from people whom we generally and generally trust. in this case, the protection will be a kind of misunderstanding of the message itself.
The first of the most effective attention grabbing techniques is reception of a "neutral phrase".
Its essence, with all the variety of applications, boils down to the fact that at the beginning of the speech a phrase is pronounced that is not directly related to the main topic, but for some reason, for some reason, it has meaning, meaning and value for all those present and therefore collects their attention.
The second method of attracting and concentrating attention is the so-called reception of "enticement".
Its essence lies in the fact that the speaker at first pronounces something in a difficultly perceived way, very quietly, very incomprehensibly, too monotonous or illegible.
The listener has to make special efforts to understand at least something, and these efforts involve concentration of attention. Using this technique, the speaker, as it were, provokes the listener to use the methods of concentration.
Another important way to "collect" attention is eye contact technique between the speaker and the listener.
Many people use this technique, knowing its effectiveness: they look around the audience, look intently at someone alone, fix several people in the audience with their eyes and nod to them, etc. Establishing eye contact is a technique widely used in any communication (not only in mass, but also in personal, business, etc.).
Looking at a person intently, we attract his attention, constantly moving away from someone's gaze, we show that we do not want to communicate: any conversation begins with mutual eye contact.
Interactive side of communication
Action - the main content of communication. in our communication, we constantly react to the actions of our partner. in one case, it seems to us that the partner offends us and we defend ourselves, in the other, that he flatters us, in the third, that he is "pushing" us somewhere.
What allows us to understand the meaning of the partner's actions? In order to analyze your actions in communication, to assess their adequacy to the situation, you need to answer the following questions:
How to correlate situation and action? How to choose the right action?
One of the possible ways to understand the situation of communication is the perception of the position of partners, as well as their positions relative to each other.Each of us noticed that in any conversation, conversation, public speaking, who is the leader in this communication and who is the follower is of great importance.
English psychotherapist Perls distinguishes two main positions in the conversation: the master of the situation and the subordinate party.
Communication styles
Communication style significantly determines the behavior of a person when he interacts with other people. The specific choice of communication style is determined by many factors: the personality traits of a person, his worldview and position in society, the characteristics of this society and many others.
Ritual style is generated by intergroup situations, manipulative - business, and humanistic - interpersonal.
Ritual communication. Maintaining communication with society, reinforcing the idea of oneself as a member of society.
A partner in such communication is a necessary attribute of the ritual. in real life there is a huge number of rituals, sometimes very different situations, in which everyone participates as a kind of "mask" with predetermined properties. These rituals require only one thing from the participants - knowledge of the rules of the game:
in ritual communication, it is essential for us to follow a social role. For ritual communication, it is very important, on the one hand, to correctly recognize the situation of communication, and to imagine how to behave in it, on the other.
in many cases we are happy to take part in ritual communication, in even more situations we participate in it automatically, fulfilling the requirements
Manipulative communication. This is communication in which the partner is treated as a means of achieving goals external to him. in manipulative communication, we "slip" the stereotype to the partner, which we consider to be the most beneficial at the moment.
And even if both partners have their own goals for changing the point of view of the interlocutor, the winner will be the one who turns out to be the more skillful manipulator, i.e. the one who knows the partner better, understands the goals better, is better at communicating.
Manipulation is a negative phenomenon.
A huge number of professional tasks presupposes precisely manipulative communication. Manipulative communication is an extremely common type of communication that occurs mainly where there is joint activity. it is important to remember one essential point - a person's attitude to manipulative communication and the reverse effect of a manipulative style.
Humanistic communication. This is, to the greatest extent, personal communication, allowing to satisfy such a human need as the need for understanding, sympathy, empathy. Neither ritual nor manipulative communication can fully satisfy this vital need. The goals of humanistic communication are not fixed, not planned from the very beginning. Its important feature is a joint change in the ideas of both partners, determined by the depth of communication.
Situations of humanistic communication are known to everyone - this is intimate, confessional, psychotherapeutic communication.
The main mechanism of influence in humanistic communication is suggestion, suggestion is the most effective of all possible mechanisms.
So, we have examined in sufficient detail the problem of communication as a whole, and also dwelled on the structure, content, characteristics of communication elements, mechanisms of influence on a communication partner.
Communication is usually understood as a complex, multidimensional process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the need for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a joint strategy for interaction, perception and understanding of another person. In this definition, the main content of communication is highlighted, namely: the transfer of information, interaction, knowledge of each other by people. These three characteristics of content are commonly viewed as aspects of communication: communicative, interactive and perceptual. Sometimes communication (transfer of information), interaction (interaction) and perception (understanding and knowledge of each other by people) are studied as the main functions of communication.
There are different types of communication: direct ("face to face"), mediated or indirect (individuals are separated from each other by time or distance), mass communication (multiple contacts of strangers).
The dynamics and level of development of students is largely determined by how their interaction with each other is organized, how interaction with teachers is ensured.
Consider the types of communication and their role in personality development.
The material-practical type of communication characterizes the subjects united by a common goal in joint activities. The semantic component of this type of communication is the readiness of each of its participants for concerted actions, for cooperation.
The spiritually-informational type of communication satisfies the individual's need for such a spiritual community, the tangible result of which is the increase in information about the other in the process of mutual subject-subject interaction. The spiritual and practical type of communication satisfies a person's need for behavior that takes him out of the world of everyday life, everyday life (the behavior of fans at the stadium, at public holidays). The dominant component of this type of communication is the reciprocity of reactions to what is happening, adherence to certain norms and rules of behavior.
In the rules of each of these types of communication, a person can actualize himself on two levels: creative and reproductive.
In the process of interaction, people with their appearance, gestures, facial expressions, behavior have a certain impact on the intentions, feelings, states of each other. Those characteristics of human behavior that are perceived by sight, hearing, sometimes touch, are called external human behavior. Internal behavior is understood as the position of a person in relation to himself, the system of his views and values, ideas about what is necessary and beautiful, impermissible and ugly.
Speech culture demonstrates the true face of a person. Special requirements are imposed on speech behavior because the words we pronounce often lead to conflicts, misinterpretation of the verbal content by another person.
For everyone interested in productive communication, it is important to know the constituent elements of speech and take into account their significance and impact on the personality in everyday life. For example, one of the criteria for productive pedagogical communication is the creation of a favorable psychological climate, the formation of certain interpersonal relationships in the study group. Effective pedagogical communication is always aimed at the formation of a positive "I-concept" of the personality, at the development of the student's self-confidence, in their abilities, in their potential. A positive attitude towards the personality of the student and the system of methods of encouragement are an important part of pedagogical communication. The productivity of communication depends on the general tone and mood of the participants in the communication. Words of praise, for example, spoken sincerely and with a desire to please a person, can change his mood and behavior. The same applies to reproaches. Communication becomes unproductive in those cases when a person does not know how to sincerely and essentially raise the mood of another. It becomes just as unproductive in those cases when the other does not know how to correctly perceive and evaluate the actions of a person who seeks to change the well-being of others for the better. To master productive communication technologies, it is important to learn how to find new sides and qualities in relationships with relatives and friends, to see new value systems in everyday life and to reflect them in your speech.
As already noted, the harmonious development of a growing personality is impossible outside the leading types of activity - cognition, play, creative and labor activity, communication. In the process of personality formation, play performs a compensatory function and allows a person to realize himself in imaginary, ideal roles, images.
The essence of the game lies in the fact that it is not an ordinary, real life, but a convention that specifically enters into real life. Its specificity is that play is a free manifestation of human activity. The goals pursued by the game lie outside the immediate material interests.
The functions of the game are quite varied. It simulates life situations, unites the participants, creates space for imagination, broadens their horizons, etc.
Games used in training are role-playing, imitation, business, organizational and activity. They help to bring educational and practical activities of students closer together. Many games require collective decision making, which enriches the group experience through collaboration.
Game activity stimulates self-knowledge of the individual, in particular, self-observation, self-attitude, self-esteem. Adequate self-assessment of abilities, health, performance is a condition for the harmonious development of a personality. Analysis of one's psychological qualities and characteristics, comparing oneself with others, other people enriches the experience of interaction, fosters a culture of communication. Since self-awareness is formed by generalizing practical knowledge about other people, in playing activity it is not difficult to create real situations that induce awareness of the “I” as a subject of perception of others. For example: “Do others share my opinion about me?”; "If others see me differently, how can this be explained?" etc.
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