Transparent glass was invented. The history of glass in the history of mankind. Invention and manufacture of glass. IV. Consolidation of the studied material

Before reaching us in the form in which we now know it, glass has come a long way, several thousand years long.


The dwellings of our forefathers, ancient people, did not have glass at all. Light penetrated through narrow passages in the rocks or rocky caves.

But the invention of glass is not the privilege of man. Samples of this material were shown to people ... by nature. Natural glasses were formed from lava that poured out during. The glass was cloudy and dark in color. Today we know it as obsidian.

glass inventors

The history of this material is so far back in time that it has changed more than once in the light of archaeological discoveries and is still considered controversial. Egypt, the Mediterranean, Africa and Ancient Mesopotamia claim leadership in glassmaking.

Samples of Egyptian glass are the glass glaze on the faience tiles of the Jesser Pyramid, which was created in the 27th century BC. e. There are even earlier examples - faience decorations about 5,000 years old.


At first, the glass of the Egyptians came out of a cloudy bluish or greenish hue - depending on where the sand was mined for its production and what impurities it contained. People learned to make colorless glass much later, probably in the 1st century AD: manganese was used for discoloration.

In Mesopotamia, archaeologists have found a glass cylinder seal that is approximately 4,500 years old. Incense vessels are one of the frequent finds of scientists during excavations on the territory of the Old Babylonian kingdom.

Ancient glass making

More and more researchers are inclined to believe that glass arose independently in several places at once. How it happened is still a mystery. Glass was such a valuable material that it was kept in the strictest confidence. Only a few pieces of information have come down to us.

So, the Egyptians melted sand and soda in clay vessels on an open flame. When the ingredients were sintered, they were thrown into ice water to crack. The resulting pieces - frits - were ground into dust, and then melted again. The technology is called fritting and has been used for several centuries.

It is also interesting that the first glass products were entirely curly - seals, tiny vessels, beads. This is due to the inability of ancient people to make flat glass - they simply blown various shapes from the glass mass.

Flat, colorless glass appeared massively in European states only in the thirteenth century. However, during the excavations of Pompeii, scientists discovered samples of flat glass, which means that the technology has been known for a long time.

How did glass conquer the world?

The first glazed window appeared in the Greek baths in Pompeii. Its size was one meter by one and a half meters. A little later, small windows appear in the halls for the feast of the Greek nobility. And only on the south side. But this is about men. At that time, windows were not supposed to be on the female half of the housing at all.

Glass flourishes the most in Ancient Rome. It is here that the window appears in the form in which we now know it - placed in a frame made of metal. Most often made of bronze. At the same time, the first "ladies'" mirrors appeared, designed for women from among the Roman nobility.

Glass flourishes much more in the Middle Ages in Venice. And it is made in the most different types- like window glass, mirrors and fine glassware. It was Venice in the XVI - XVII centuries becomes almost a global glass manufacturer.

At the same time in the houses ordinary people glass remained an unaffordable luxury. The role of window glass here is an ordinary bull bladder, which was pulled over small wooden frames.

In Russia, glass began to be widely used in the reign of the Romanov dynasty. It was then that they began to decorate the entrances in the form of colored stained-glass windows and even the facade of buildings. The first glass factory was built in the middle of the 17th century in Voskresensk. Here they begin to make glassware from glass and decorate the palaces of the nobility with colored glass.

Under the Russian Emperor Peter I, there are already six glass factories in Russia. However, for ordinary people, window panes are still replaced by oiled paper and a bubble.

As you know, the glass we use in Everyday life, is an artificial material. But it has a natural analogue - obsidian. It is solidified volcanic lava or fused rock. It was obsidian that was used by primitive people to make various cutting tools, as well as jewelry.

Man-made glass, the history of which will be discussed below, at first differed little from natural glass. It could not boast of either beauty or transparency.

The ancient researcher Pliny the Elder cites in his writings that artificial glass appeared thanks to travelers who cooked food on the sandy shore and used a piece of natural soda as a stand for the boiler. The next day, a glass crust was found on the outer walls of the boiler. Pliny's hypothesis was refuted only in the 20th century. Scientists have proved that it is impossible to melt glass on an open fire. However, already several millennia ago, the inhabitants of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia learned how to melt glass in pits. The temperatures in these primitive kilns were high enough to form sand, lye, and lime into new material. However, the first man-made glass was most likely created by accident during the production of pottery.

Glass is a solid body, amorphous in its structure. Glasses are natural and artificial, made by man. Since ancient times, man has learned to use natural glass as a tool. Among the natural glasses used by man in prehistoric times, tektites and obsidian are distinguished. Both those and others are found in the parking lots of people of the Stone Age.

ancient man used natural glass for the manufacture of various axes, scrapers, arrowheads and spears, knives and other tools. Tektites were chosen by the ancients as amulets.

A very long time ago, man learned to produce glass. At the dawn of human culture, in pit-ovens used for firing clay pots and heated with straw, reeds or wood, the first glaze on the walls of these pots was given by ash melted at a not very high temperature. Flowing from the walls of the pots and mixing with the sand at the bottom of these pits, the ash gave the first glass mass. Thus, the pit kiln can be considered the cradle of glassmaking. And, it must be said that ash containing up to 40% alkali remained until the middle of the 19th century. an important component of the charge in many glass factories, the purpose of alkali is to lower the melting point of glasses. Along with ash, as a source of alkali, it was used as early as the 1st century. AD potash and soda obtained from it, meaning by them the two main types of extract from the ashes of various plants. In Egypt, natural soda was used.

In addition to ash, the second main component of glass is quartz sand. In ancient times, in the early stages of glassmaking, Syrian sand from the Belus River was famous. This sand practically did not contain iron oxides.

In addition to these main glass-forming components, various additives are used - dyes, opacifiers, and special-purpose additives that impart certain properties to glass.

Many researchers believe that glassmaking first originated in Mesopotamia about 5,000 years ago. Shards of glass dating back to 2500 BC have been found in Syria. It is known for certain that in the 16-14 centuries. BC e. glassmaking in Egypt was highly developed. Excavations carried out by Flivders Petri in Ted al-Amarna (near Thebes) in 189I-1892 revealed the remains of a glass-making workshop from the time of one of the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty. Remains of furnaces, fragments of crucibles for melting glass, broken glass and other items were found.

At the beginning of our era, the center of glassmaking is transferred to Rome. In the time of Nero (AD 54-68) the use of glass in Rome was so widespread that a simple glass goblet could be bought for a copper coin. Window glass appears in Rome. It didn't look like ours. Blow molded, it consisted of small discs inserted into the bindings of wooden or stone gratings. In the literature of those times, a description of the glass melting process has been preserved. Pliny the Elder wrote that the finest white sand was ground and mixed with 3 volumes of soda. The mixture was melted, then transferred to another furnace, where a mass was formed, called by Pliny "ammonite". Ammonitr was again melted into pure white glass. Roman masters first used soda imported from Thrace, then switched to extracting it from the ashes of algae.

Having transferred the capital from Rome to Byzantium, to Constantinople in 330, Constantine transferred many artisans to it, including glassmakers.

Significant development in Byzantium was achieved by such a branch of glass production as mosaics. The need for mosaics was enormous in connection with the construction of a large number of churches, and especially St. Sophia of Constantinople, where mosaics were widely used as decoration.

In 1204 the crusaders, and among them were the Venetians, took Constantinople and almost one third of the territory of Byzantium went to Venice. Having acquired masters and their secrets in the east, the Venetians began to actively master the glass business. At the end of the XIII century. on the island of Murano, 2 km. from Venice, glass workshops already exist.

In the 14th-13th centuries, the artistic value of Venetian glass was generally recognized. Its heyday falls on the 16th century. This is the thinnest, purest and very elegant glass. The forms of products are extremely diverse. Glasses, goblets, crockery with legs predominate. Along with colorless glass, colored glass was also used,

gilded. The invention of filigree - transparent glass with mesh weaves of milky white threads, further increased the already worldwide fame of Venetian glass in the 16th century. he granted all the first masters of Murano the French nobility.

Only in the 17th century Venetian glassmaking began to decline. At this time in the Czech Republic in 1609. Kashpar Leman invented a recipe for massive, hard glass, called crystal for its resemblance to rock crystal. Calcium was added to the glass, which gave purity and transparency, hardness, a higher refractive index and, consequently, the play of light. Czech crystal, or as it is also called Bohemian, at that time allowed the use of deep engraving - glass carving. From this time begins new era in the history of artistic glassmaking.

Somewhat later in England, lead was added to glass. Lead crystal has an amazing brilliance and light refraction with a magnificent play of light - dispersion. In addition, lead crystal has a beautiful ringing. In the 18th century crystal production originates in France - the famous Baccarat company, which is still active today.

After checking these stories, archaeologists found that the sand of the Bel River contains 14.5 - 18 percent lime (calcium carbonate), 3.6 - 5.3 percent alumina (aluminum oxide) and about 1.5 percent magnesium carbonate. From a mixture of this sand with soda, durable glass is obtained.

So, the Phoenicians took ordinary sand, which their country was rich in, and mixed it with sodium bicarbonate - baking soda. It was mined in Egyptian soda lakes or obtained from the ash left after the combustion of algae and steppe grass. They added an alkaline earth component to this mixture - limestone, marble or chalk - and then heated it all to about 700 - 800 degrees. Thus, a bubbly, viscous, quickly solidified mass arose, from which glass beads were made or, for example, elegant, transparent vessels were blown.

The Phoenicians were not content with simply imitating the Egyptians. Over time, showing incredible invention and perseverance, they learned how to make a transparent glassy mass. One can only guess how much time and labor it cost them.

The inhabitants of Sidon were the first to take up glassmaking in Phoenicia. It happened relatively late - in the VIII century BC. By that time, Egyptian suppliers dominated the markets for almost a thousand years.

However, Pliny the Elder attributes the invention of glass to the Phoenicians - the crew of one ship. It allegedly came from Egypt with a cargo of soda. In the Akko area, sailors moored ashore to have lunch. However, it was not possible to find a single stone nearby on which to place the cauldron. Then someone took several lumps of soda from the ship. When they "melted from the fire, mixed with the sand on the shore", then "transparent streams of a new liquid flowed - this was the origin of glass." Many consider this story to be fiction. However, according to a number of researchers, there is nothing incredible in it - except that the place is indicated incorrectly. It could have happened near Mount Carmel, and the exact time of the invention of glass is not known.

At first, the Phoenicians made ornamental vessels, ornaments and trinkets from glass. Over time they diversified manufacturing process and began to receive glass of various grades - from dark and cloudy to colorless and transparent. They knew how to give transparent glass any color; it didn't get muddy from that.

In its composition, this glass was close to modern, but differed in the ratio of components. Then it contained more alkali and iron oxide, less silica and lime. This lowered the melting point, but worsened the quality. The composition of Phoenician glass was approximately as follows: 60 - 70 percent silica, 14 - 20 percent soda, 5 - 10 percent lime and various metal oxides. Some glasses, especially opaque red ones, contain a lot of lead.

Demand created supply. In the largest cities of Phoenicia - Tyre and Sidon - rose glass factories. Over time, the price of glass has declined, and it has gone from being a luxury item to an antique consumable. If the biblical Job equated glass with gold, saying that wisdom cannot be repaid either with gold or glass (Job 28:17), then over time glassware replaced both metal and ceramic. The Phoenicians flooded the entire Mediterranean with glass vessels and bottles, beads and tiles.

This craft experienced its highest flowering already in the Roman era, when, probably, a method of glass blowing was discovered in Sidon. It happened in the 1st century BC. The masters of Berut and Sarepta were also famous for their ability to blow glass. In Rome and Gaul, this craft also became widespread, since many specialists from Sidon moved there.

Several blown glass vessels have survived, marked with the sign of the master Ennion of Sidon, who worked in Italy in the early or middle of the 1st century AD. For a long time, these vessels were considered the most early examples. However, in 1970, during excavations in Jerusalem, a warehouse with molded and blown glass vessels was discovered. They were made in 50-40 BC. Obviously, glass blowing appeared in Phenicia a little earlier.

According to Pliny the Elder, even mirrors were invented in Sidon. They were mostly round, convex (they were also made of blown glass), with a thin metal lining of tin or lead. They were inserted into a metal frame. Similar mirrors were made until the 16th century, when the Venetians invented tin-mercury amalgam.

It was the famous Venetian manufactory that continued the traditions of the Sidon masters. In the Middle Ages, her success led to a decline in demand for Lebanese glass. And yet, even in the era of the Crusades, glass produced in Tire or Sidon was in great demand.

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"Glass" - Ordinary window glass has 0.97 W / (m. Chemical laboratory glass - glass with high chemical and thermal resistance. Quartz glasses have the highest thermal conductivity. Fragility. Optical glass. Glasses consisting of atoms of one element are called elementary. The most important in practice belongs to the class of silicate glasses.

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Lesson: Phoenician sailors

Pedagogical goals: To help familiarize students with the way of life and cultural achievements of the Phoenicians; create conditions for the development of skills to characterize the concept of "colony" in the history of the Ancient World, to define the Phoenician alphabet as special system writing; to promote the development of the ability to work with the map.

The main content of the topic, concepts and terms : Location and natural conditions of Phoenicia. Formation of city-states in Phoenicia. Cities: Tire, Byblos, Sidon. The Phoenicians are the best sailors of the ancient world. international trade Phoenicians, the formation of colonies. Inventions and discoveries of Phoenician artisans: making purple dye, making glass. The invention of the alphabet. Incense, purple paint, colony, alphabet.

During the classes.

1. Organizational moment. Greeting students. Check readiness for the lesson.

2. Knowledge control.

Checking knowledge of chronology: (chronological dictation)

1. Formation of a single state in Egypt (3000 BC)

2. The reign of Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC)

3. Conquest campaigns of Thutmose (1500 BC)

4. The appearance of the first people on Earth (2 million years ago)

5. Appearance of Homo sapiens (40 thousand years ago)

6. The emergence of crafts (10 thousand years ago)

7. Appearance of writing (5 thousand years ago)

8. Beginning of metal processing (9 thousand years ago)

3. Statement of the learning task. The teacher offers to look at the map and find cities on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea: Tire, Byblos, Sidon; read the name of the country to be met in this lesson.

4. Assimilation of new knowledge and methods of action. Location and natural conditions of Phoenicia. Formation of city-states ( teacher's story using the map).

Problem question:

Using a map and a story, determine how the geographical conditions of the country influenced the activities of people? Compare the occupations of the Phoenicians with the occupations of the inhabitants of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia, indicate common features and differences - on the board

Phoenicia is fenced off from Western Asia by a mountain range. The coast here is rocky, and the strip of fertile land is quite narrow, almost unsuitable for agriculture. The country is so small that the inscription on the map Phoenicia did not fit on land and, as it were, floats in sea water.

The main wealth of the country was given by the sea.

Sailing on a ship along the coast, we would see beautiful cities located almost on the coast: Byblos, Sidon and Tire. Along the narrow roads along the coast, trade caravans moved from north to south and back.

In general, the climate was favorable. Summer lasted from late April to late October, while winter was short - only three months. During this time, cold rains now and then fell upon the inhabitants. The air temperature in summer reached 27-31 degrees Celsius; in winter, colds set in, which sometimes reached 7 frosts, but more often the air was moderately cool - approximately +5 o C. The most unpleasant natural phenomenon was dry winds, which posed a serious threat to agriculture.

There was relatively little fertile soil in Phoenicia, so crop farming developed poorly, but horticulture was widespread.

Cities and villages were located along the coastline, which was associated with the main occupations of the Phoenicians - navigation, craft and trade. The names of the main Phoenician cities reflect the geographical conditions of the country.

So, in the north there was a city that the Greeks called Byblos, in translation it meant mountain. The largest of the Phoenician cities, the Greeks called Tire, which corresponds to - rock. Third Big city was called Sidon, which means fishing town.

The main occupations of the population of Phoenicia were trade, craft, navigation and fishing; these features of the economy were determined natural conditions and climate of the country.

Ancient cities of Phoenicia.

It is still difficult for scientists to recreate appearance cities; we only know that they were surrounded by several rows of massive walls; there were also high towers. Shields were nailed to the walls, which covered the loopholes, from where the archers hit the enemy. Strangers who entered the city found themselves in a maze of houses and crooked streets that led to temples and marketplaces.

(Additional) The Phoenician cities were centers of trade in Asia Minor. From products own production The Phoenicians sold, first of all, dried fish, olive oil, cedar wood, which was used to build ships. Phoenicia was also the center transit trade. Its famous seafaring merchants established ties with various countries and peoples.

Craft.

Crafts developed in the Phoenician cities from ancient times. The good fame of foundry workers, builders, weavers has stepped far beyond the borders of their native places.

Shipbuilding.

In Phoenicia, in contrast to Egypt and the Southern Mesopotamia, cedar and oak forests grew. What did it matter? (The Phoenicians knocked together strong ships from logs and went on distant voyages). Merchants brought woolen fabrics, glassware and other products for sale. An ancient legend says that the Phoenicians were the inventors of glass.

Glass.

Once upon a Phoenician merchant ship, who was carrying a load of soda, stuck to the sandy shore. The merchants decided to have lunch, lit a fire, took out pots, but did not find any stones to put on. Then, instead of stones, they used pieces of rock soda taken from ships. The fire was strong, the soda melted and mixed with sand and shells: jets of a transparent liquid flowed from the fire. This liquid was glass.

It is difficult to say how true this story is. However, it is known that glass can actually be welded from soda, sand and shells (lime). And the Phoenicians, indeed, were among the first to learn how to make transparent glass.

It was in Phoenicia that glass of various grades, from dark and opaque to colorless and transparent, was produced. Where was it used? Glass in ancient times was not inserted, as it is now in window frames. From it they made various decorations, vessels, which were very much appreciated; the walls of houses were also trimmed with glass.

Exercise: scientists believe that the creation of glass in importance and significance can be compared with the discovery of metals, with the invention of pottery, with the advent of weaving. Are scientists right? (Like cloth and earthenware, glass in ready-made does not exist in nature. His invention is one of the largest in the history of mankind. And today glass plays a big role in everyday life, in every house there are window panes and various glass objects.)

Purple paint.

In many Phoenician cities, primarily in Tire and Sidon, the purple paint extraction, highly valued in the countries of the ancient world. How was this dye discovered?

Student's story: It is said that once a Phoenician shepherd was tending his flock not far from the sea coast. His dog chewed on a sea snail and returned to its owner with a purple muzzle. The shepherd thought that the dog had injured his muzzle with something, and began to wipe the imaginary blood with a piece of wool, but he did not find any wound; the wool has acquired a beautiful scarlet color.

Phoenician artisans learned to dye woolen fabrics with purple dye. Modern chemical dyes did not exist in antiquity. The paint could be either mineral (extracted from the earth), or vegetable or animal origin. How was purple dye obtained? The Phoenicians dived to the bottom of the sea and got out small shells with snails. Only a few drops of thick liquid could be extracted from each. It was the purple paint famous in antiquity. If the paint was kneaded thinly, then the fabric acquired a pink or scarlet color, if it was thicker, it became lilac-red. Fabrics dyed with purple dye sparkled in the sun, they did not fade or fade when washed. The price of purple fabrics was huge, so only very rich people bought them: kings, priests and military leaders.

What are the inventions of the Phoenicians? (Transparent glass, magenta paint)

They read a textbook about colonies p. 72 p. 3(find the Phoenician colonies on the map and mark them on the outline map)

Slave traders.

The Phoenicians were skilled craftsmen and brave sailors, but they were notorious for being greedy and cunning slave traders: it happened that they stole children.

Imagine, Phoenician merchants landed on the shore and laid out their goods. Here are magnificent purple fabrics, glass beads and incense bottles, here are items made of gold, amber and ivory ... A crowd has gathered around: some buy, and some just stare at beautiful and outlandish goods. And there are a lot of kids here. “Oh, what nice boys! - says the merchant, turning to two friends. - Here's a cake for you with honey. I like you both, you are so much like my sons. I'll give you my belt... - The merchant pretends to take off his belt. - However, no, I have something better on the ship: do you want to get a small dagger each? The boys willingly go with the Phoenician to the ship. The rest of the merchants instantly collect their goods, raise the anchor and the ship sets sail. Mothers run along the shore in horror, screaming, tearing their hair. But they will never see their sons again. Somewhere in a foreign distant land, the Phoenicians will sell the boys into slavery.

ancient alphabet.

Phoenician merchants for successful trading records had to be kept. They got acquainted with the Egyptian letter and clutched their heads: no, such a letter does not suit us! What are the difficulties of Egyptian writing?

The Phoenicians got acquainted with cuneiform writing, it also seemed difficult to them. How?

Then the Phoenicians created their own letter - they created new system letters.

What are the advantages of the Phoenician writing over the writing of Egypt or Mesopotamia?

Reading paragraph 4 § 15 p.73.

What is the disadvantage of the Phoenician alphabet?

C.74 - lettering: “g” - gimel (Phoenician for “camel”) Does this letter look like this animal? What about a camel's hump?

"D" - dalet (in Phoenician "door") - resembled the entrance to the tent.

"M" - mem (Phoenician for "water") - resembled waves.

Conclusion: The similarity of Russian letters with Phoenician is not accidental: the Greek alphabet was created on the basis of the Phoenician alphabet, and Russian and many others were created on its basis.

Generalization: all Phoenician letters are consonants, vowels were skipped when writing. The lack of vowels made it difficult to read.

What is the meaning of the Phoenician alphabet?

5. Consolidation of knowledge and methods of action.

Testing:

1. What ancient state was located on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea?

( Egypt, Lydia, Media, Phoenicia)

2. The ancient Phoenicians knew the secret of making what substance?

(Gunpowder, paper, glass, porcelain)

3. How many letters are in the Phoenician alphabet?

4 . What fruit did the Phoenicians eat?

(Ficus. palm trees, olives, feijoa)

5. What was the main occupation of the Phoenicians?

( Navigation, trade; agriculture; warfare; winemaking)

6. What city did the Phoenicians found in North Africa?

(Troy, Alexandria, Thebes, Carthage)

7. What did the Greeks borrow from the Phoenicians?

(Maps, compass, alphabet, glass)

8. From what the ancient Phoenicians got the famous purple color that went to dyeing expensive fabrics?

(From olives, from rare minerals, from sea shells, from plant juice)

9. Choose the appropriate answer for each question.

a) Settlements founded in the places of parking of ships.

b) A written sign corresponding to a sound.

c) Fragrant, fragrant substances used for cosmetic purposes.

d) The robbery craft that the Phoenicians were engaged in.

( Incense, colony, piracy, letter, sound)

10. Choose the appropriate answer for each question.

a) A substance used to make dishes.

b) The first letter of the Phoenician alphabet.

c) purple-red color.

d) A product obtained from olives.

(Aleph, oil, glass, alpha, purple)

6. Homework.

§ 15, assignments in the workbook.

 

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