Hired agricultural worker. Rural workers

Rural workers

Rural in the proper sense are those persons who take a direct part in agriculture with their labor by placing their labor under a contract of employment at the disposal of entrepreneurs in the agricultural industry for a certain payment, whereby the latter is for them an exclusive or at least the main source of funds. to existence. In these features, rural agriculture differs from the slave and serf who work for the landowner under compulsion, from the independent peasant who lives on income from his own plot, and from the handicraft worker and factory proletarian employed in branches of production other than agriculture. It also follows from the above definition that rural districts, in their own way, social position (wage- the main source of subsistence) should be considered only as one of the divisions of the working class in general. In addition to rural rural areas in the proper sense, in many countries there is still a large contingent of people who, although they resort to agricultural work for hire, but, owning plots of land on the rights of ownership or lease, look at wages only as an auxiliary source of income, not as the main one. This category of persons belonging to rural R. in broad sense, represents a transitional group between completely independent peasants and rural peasants in the strict sense. Time of occurrence rural workers as a special social class in most countries should be attributed to the time of the fall of serfdom, in which the landowners, using forced labor, almost did not need hired workers, and almost every farmer was endowed with a certain amount of land. Only from the time of the abolition of serfdom does it become possible to dispossess land of part of the peasantry (see Peasants), on the one hand, and to develop farms with wage labor, on the other. Contributed to both and the rapid change in economic relations after the liberation of the peasants: the development big industry, the decline of rural crafts, a decrease in local additional, non-agricultural earnings. Distribution of rural workers into separate categories on various grounds, it appears far from being as sharp and definite as the distribution of industrial workers. The insignificance of the division of labor and the division of occupations in agriculture often leads to the fact that as part of the same farm the same persons are employed, in turn, in field cultivation, grassland farming, horse breeding, breeding large cattle, sheep breeding, pig breeding, gardening and horticulture, and sometimes in the processing of various agricultural products (cheese making, butter making, etc.). However, this state of affairs is beginning to change in recent times. Separate industries stand out not only from the composition of the same farm, but also separate geographically (Texas cattle breeding, Dakota wheat fields, Australian sheepfolds, strawberry fields near New York, Holland dairy farms, butter factories in Canada, etc.). In accordance with this, the position of rural workers also changes, as they begin to group themselves into special professional categories. The growing use of machines in agriculture has also brought about many changes. Uneven needs hired labor on seasons(see R. time in agriculture) determines the division of R. rural according to the conditions of employment. Permanent or term workers (laborers) are hired for a more or less long period, live on the farm, usually receive from the latter premises, food and a sum of money determined by agreement for a year or for a period of work, pledging, for their part, to perform all the work assigned by the farm. The relative number of term R. in the economy depends mainly on the size of the economy and the greater or lesser rationality of its management. As a rule, permanent workers are kept mainly for the care of livestock, and all draft work is performed by temporary workers. A special type of fixed-term workers are settled workers: they receive a room for a family, a certain amount of land for a vegetable garden, potatoes, flax and the right to keep a cow for the owner’s feed, obliging themselves to appear for all work for a daily wage determined by the contract at the rate of a husband, wife and an unmarried worker, whom he must support in his family settled R. This type of hiring is common in Germany; in Russia, it is almost never found. All those handmade, for the production of which time-limited work is not sufficient on the farm, are performed by temporary workers, piecework or by the day. Piecework workers are hired, preferably over day laborers, mainly for work that is easily controlled by the bill or measure (harvesting grain, haying, harvesting root crops, sunflowers, corn, digging ditches, shearing sheep, transporting work on livestock owned by the workers themselves). day laborers, receiving remuneration for the time of work, they undertake to perform all work at the direction of the owner for a certain number of hours a day: from 10 to 12 in summer and from 6 to 8 in winter. The need for this type of worker on the property owners' farms is determined mainly by the extraordinary accumulation of work requiring urgent execution (haymaking and grain harvesting) in certain short periods of time. The main contingent of day laborers usually consists of neighboring small-land peasants; therefore, in most cases, day laborers are paid only in money, on their food. A special type of day laborers is represented in sparsely populated areas aliens R., who are from more populated areas by the time of intensified work. Yes, from Central Russia R. are sent to the south and beyond the Volga to harvest hay and grain and for other work. Rhenish R. are sent for a while to the Black Forest; R. come to East Prussia from Russia. When such workers are hired and there are no significant settlements near, the economy must, of necessity, feed them grubs and provide them with premises. In a southern climate, a considerable number of permanent workers can be kept; in the north, where the period of work is shorter, daily rent on a large scale is necessary in spring and autumn. Abundant harvest also sometimes causes an emergency need for temporary workers, and the importance of this factor seems to be all the greater because, with state of the art meteorological knowledge, neither R. nor entrepreneurs can predict in advance in what locality and in what quantity more labor will be needed. Many of the villages R. (in the broad sense) have small land plots on the right of ownership or lease. Hence the distribution of rural R. into the categories of full "masters", horseless, landless, homeless, vagrants. General Conditions Affecting Height wages in general (see Wages), are complicated in agriculture by fluctuations in the height of demand for the labor of rural workers, determined by the season, climate and harvest, as well as by the cash that many of the workers have on their own farms. The influence of the latter factor is considered by some researchers as a favorable circumstance for rural workers due to their lower economic dependence from the employer at the conclusion of a legally free contract. In the opinion of others, in most such cases wages are reduced by the entire amount that the worker can work on his own plot, and the connection with his own plot makes it difficult for workers to choose a more profitable employer, forcing them to sell their labor power to local owners. The third factor determining the level of wages in agriculture is the extremely low level of needs of the rural worker. Significance of application in the agricultural industry natural wages also does not remain without a significant influence on the height of the entire wage and, moreover, due to the low level of the worker's needs, rather in a disadvantageous direction for him than in a favorable one. In favorable years for the landowners, when the prices of agricultural products are high, the employers show a tendency to pass over to payment in money; in years of low grain prices, the opposite is observed. Forms of wages in kind - the supply of workers with food, premises, and sometimes an independent small farm. Ludogovsky determines the following number of main food items that are usually given to farm laborers per year on rationally managed farms: rye bread 500-650 lb., other types of grain (wheat, buckwheat, barley, peas) 150-220 lb., potatoes 400-1000 lb. ., meat and fish 50-100 lbs., fat and various oils 16-50 lbs., salt 20-50 lbs. per person (except milk, vegetables, etc.). In most cases, food costs far below this standard, especially for temporary workers. One form of payment in kind is remuneration. from a share product. The following remuneration is considered normal: for complete harvesting of grain, without threshing - from 1/15 to 1/9 of the harvest; for threshing - from 1/9 to 1/15 of the threshed grain; for the complete harvesting of hay from mediocre meadows 30-40% of the collected, good meadows - 25%; for harvesting potatoes from 1/12 to 1/15 tubers. Introduction agricultural machines greatly reduced the demand for labor and wages. According to the calculations of French agronomists, the use of machines in France reduces the cost of labor by 25 francs. per year per hectare. The introduction of machine processing is beginning to eliminate the difference between the position and nature of labor in agriculture and in factories.

Legal and social status in general rural workers are in less favorable conditions than the same position of the industrial proletariat. The legislation regulating relations between employers and workers in agriculture was created almost everywhere under the influence of completely different conditions from factory legislation. It seeks not so much to protect economically the weakest side in the contract of employment, how much to establish guarantees of compliance with the once concluded contract. This remark also applies to the last of the legislative drafts of this kind - the Hungarian one, caused by the colossal strike of the reapers, which swept a significant part of Hungary in the summer of 1897. According to the critic of this project, Krejcsi, the demands of rural workers, announced at their congress in February 1897 (the exact establishment of the length of the working day, the legislative abolition of piece work, the prohibition of payment in kind, insurance against illness and accidents, the establishment of Sunday rest, the establishment of agricultural inspections by analogy with factory inspections, etc.) are only marginally satisfied with the project.

The Condition of Rural Workers in Western Europe. In England the position of small landowners and tenants who turned into hired workers until the middle of the 19th century. it was extremely miserable. In 1863, it was officially recognized that free rural R. eat incomparably worse than criminals deprived of their liberty. The weekly amount of food for both of them turned out to be of the following content (according to K. Marx):

As early as the beginning of the 1780s, the further economic development of England led to a significant improvement in the conditions for the existence of rural districts. 3 pen., rose by 1850 to 9s. 7 pennies, and in 1880 - up to 14s; daily from 8 pen. in 1870 it reached 1s. 5 pen. in 1850 and up to 2s. in 1880. Along with the improvement in the situation of the rural districts, there was a decrease in their numbers:

In subsequent periods, the number of rural R. continued to decrease. In 1881, there were only 870,798 people, including 40,346 women, and in 1891 - 780,707 people, of which 756,557 were women. and 24150 women. In 1891, a commission was formed in England to study the life of workers, including those in rural areas. According to the data she collected, the average weekly wage was equal in 1892 to 13 shillings. 5 2/3d., i.e., lower than in 1880, but higher than in the 50s. Since the price of the necessary foodstuffs of the worker has decreased in comparison with the previous period:

then it can be recognized that the real payment is higher than the previous one.

In France, according to official data in 1883, out of 18758011 people. of the productive population in agriculture, 6915965 people were employed. Of the latter, there were 4,046,164 people. owners, 97835 people senior officials and 2771966 people. workers. The average daily wage of rural workers (in francs) is as follows:

The average annual wage of farm laborers does not exceed 290 francs. for an adult shepherd, 324 fr. for an adult farmer, 235 fr. for woman. Recently, in rural France, there has been an increase in unemployment due to the introduction of agricultural machinery. However, however low wages are paid for agricultural labor in France at the present time, some improvement is nevertheless noticeable in comparison with the 1960s. So, according to Schmoller, from 1862 to 1882, the average summer daily wage with food in rural regions increased by 0.16 francs, wages without food - by 0.36, wages for a fixed-term worker (annual farm laborer) - by 60 - 70 fr. (20 - 26%), for an employee - 106 francs. (80%).

IN Germany, according to the trade census of 1895, with a general decrease in the agricultural population compared with 1882 from 42.51% to 35.74% of the total population, the number of independent owners absolutely increased from 2288033 to 2591725 people, while the number of workers decreased from 5881819 to 5619794 souls. In 1882, rural farmers accounted for 71.41% of the total rural population, landlords 27.78%, and senior employees 0.81%; 16%. With the introduction of a more rational culture and with the use of improved agricultural machines, more qualified employees are required. The labor of ordinary workers has to a certain extent been replaced by the work of machines. The use of the latter has increased quite significantly:

Comparative data for the major states of Germany show the following minimums and maximums of the average annual fee:

If we take all the data showing the ratio in different countries of the number of employers and those employed, for approximately the same years in percentage terms, then we get the following (Janson):

IN Russia the question of what is more profitable for the landowner - serf or hired labor, was raised at the end of the serf era (see Peasants). With the emancipation of the peasants, the supply of labor increased; the allotment of land allotted to the peasant family in most cases turned out to be very scarce; I had to go to work for the landowner. However, the land was cultivated by the peasants with their own implements for so long that it was not easy for the landowner to switch to the independent organization of hired labor. Hence the widespread peasant lease of landed estates. Later, land prices began to rise: rental prices also rose, and land surveying became possible only for wealthy peasants. The change in economic relations in the depths of the village itself also led to an increase in the supply of labor. The weakening of some farms was the foundation for the strengthening of others; the strengthening of the latter, inversely, led to an even greater weakening of the former. Those who became horseless and landless could only look for outside earnings, especially since the local handicraft industries, where they existed, began to fall. Wage labor in the middle black earth provinces became cheaper; it became more profitable for the landowner, who did not have time to rent out his land for a more or less high price, to work it by hired labor. At the same time, the need for hired labor grew in the south and southeast, where vast expanses of land that had previously been used for cattle breeding began to be plowed up. In the late 60s and early 70s, a real working fever began there; labor prices at the "critical moments" of agriculture rose to fabulous heights, and the rumor about this attracted crowds of poor people from Central Russia. This movement did not weaken in subsequent years, but took on a more uniform character. It was then that the "rural labor question" arose in Russia. Together with this movement of workers to the south, the rural proletariat also developed further in its homeland, in the Middle and Northern Russia. Each famine, each shortage of crops, each loss of livestock weakened many peasant owners, deprived them of livestock, made their labor cheaper, and increased their financial need. A significant role in the process of formation of the rural proletariat was played by the disintegration that began after the fall of serfdom as a result of the divisions of a large family community. In a word, a large class of wage-workers has appeared, the majority of whom receive their livelihood not only from the sale of their labor power, but also from their own small plots of land, which do not always pay for the duties that lie on it. There are no more or less precise data on the number of rural villages in Russia. On the basis of zemstvo household censuses relating to 81 districts of 13 provinces, one of the zemstvo statisticians, S. F. Rudnev, made, however, an attempt to determine the total number of workers for all of Russia. In 25 black earth provinces there are about 10,731,483 men of working age; it can be assumed that 25% of them - 2682870 people. - hired for agricultural work. In 26 non-chernozem provinces, there are about 7,124,640 mzhch. working age; about 1/10 of them, or 712,400 people, are usually employed in rural work. Thus, the total number of rural villages is approximately 3,395,000 people. The distribution of the percentage of workers in 81 counties is as follows:

There are agricultural workers per 100 men of working age:

According to the terminology of the zemstvo censuses, these peasants are subdivided mainly into farm laborers, mowers and shepherds, day laborers and piecework peasants. laborers, or term R., in accordance with the duration of the term of employment are divided into per annum And semi-annual(otherwise pilots, hired for 5-7 months, from spring to autumn). These categories of laborers, in turn, are divided into local, who are always close to home, and latrines, not able to take part in their household in a difficult time. The private farms of the families that provide farm laborers are far below the average peasant farms.

Peasant farms of 9 districts of the Voronezh province.

Thus, among families supplying farm laborers, there are more often families that do not cultivate their land, without draft animals and without any kind of livestock. In the Poltava province, farm laborers are supplied by even more destitute families; in Mirgorodsky district, for example, out of a total of 2,110 farm laborers, 45% came from families with no arable land at all, 26.9% from families with arable land less than 3 dessiatines, 24.8% from families with arable land from 3 to 6 dessiatines . and only 3.4% of families with 6 or more dec. arable land. The number of people going to be farm laborers in 76 districts of the studied provinces is as follows:

A greater number of farm laborers, consequently, come from the central black-earth provinces, and a smaller number from provinces with developed non-agricultural seasonal and handicraft industries. Within one and the same province, there are significant fluctuations by counties. The total number of farm laborers, or term workers, can be assumed for the whole of Russia at 1,096,000, including 840,000 people. for 25 black earth provinces and 256,000 people. for 25 non-chernozem. As mowers Zemstvo statistics recorded those rural regions that leave the middle and northern regions for the Novorossiysk and Chernozem steppe provinces, mainly during the mowing of grasses and grains - "kosovitsy". These outgoing R. are absent from 2 1 / 2 to 4 months, so that they approach the summer laborers. This kind of work comes either from large families, or those who lease their land - the poorest. According to dpt. agriculture and rural industry, mowers come mainly from the provinces of Poltava, Kiev, Podolsk, Chernigov, Voronezh, Oryol, Kursk, Tambov, Ryazan and Tula. Less considerable number of such R. give lips. Smolensk, Penza, Nizhny Novgorod and Kazan. Mowers are sent mainly to the lips. Yekaterinoslav, Kherson, Taurida, Stavropol and in the region of the Don and Kuban Cossacks. According to the data collected by the provincial meetings on the issue of revising the law on June 12, 1886 (see N. Brzhesky), Samara province should also be included here, where up to 400 newcomers arrive. To determine, at least with approximate accuracy, the magnitude of such a changing the years of the R. contingent, as "mowers", seems impossible. According to the zemstvo councils, in the southern districts of the Kherson province. up to 100,000 people are now arriving for summer work; meanwhile, from Alexandria and Elisavetgrad districts. the same lip. leaves up to 40,000 people. However, these data do not distinguish "mowers" from farm laborers. Laid-back "mowers" could be called, together with S. F. Rudnev, spare element temporary rural peasants. In addition to farm laborers and mowers, in the group of rural peasants, zemstvo statistics also note shepherds, hired in most cases not by individual owners, but by rural communities (under the dominance of communal land ownership, each village has its own herd). The shepherd usually hires a few more shepherds, depending on the size of the herd. Of the investigated provinces, the largest number of shepherds is provided by Tver Gubernia. (7.2 per 100 households), the smallest - Poltava (0.5), the average - Saratov (3.1). The total number of shepherds in 73 counties is estimated at approximately 53 thousand. In the southern provinces, there are special types of shepherds - shepherds, herders, herders; the owners give them huge fortunes - flocks of sheep, herds of cattle, herds of horses. In addition to farm laborers, mowers, and shepherds, who in various regions make up from 60 to 96% of all rural workers, usually employed, there are also day laborers And piecework R. In this category, zemstvo statisticians included persons for whom daily and piecework work is common, and not just an auxiliary trade in independent households. According to the Kursk statisticians, this kind of day laborers are widespread among the poorest and least well-to-do part of the population. Behind these farmers, in the proper sense, stands a vast class of small and medium-sized farmers who, either because of insufficient allotment or because of other conditions, work for hire from neighboring landowners in the form of ancillary occupation, sometimes only for pastures and drives necessary for their livestock. They, judging by the data of the dpt. agriculture, and according to provincial conferences, the landlords' land is mainly cultivated. In the near future they will probably either (majority) move into the category of farm laborers, mowers, etc., or (a minority) into the category of prosperous peasantry. The need for agriculture of one category or another is far from the same in individual regions, depending on the density of the peasant population, the size of the allotment, the method of cultivation (Baltic provinces), the amount of landownership, the development of departure for non-agricultural trades, etc. central in the provinces of the black-earth belt of European Russia, there is no need for alien R., most of the work is carried out by local forces; only inter-county movement of hired farmers is noticed, depending on the conditions of land use and the degree of harvest of a given year. Owner's land is cultivated primarily not only by the forces of local peasants, but also by their implements. This processing takes place either by renting for money, or by use, or by working off (piecework work), or by hiring for work for money. When hiring, the following method is widely practiced, according to provincial conferences. The poorer of the local peasants have been hired by neighboring landowners since autumn, during the collection of taxes, or in winter, in order to receive at least some money in advance, in a particularly difficult time for them, in the form of a deposit. Because of the latter, labor is sold not only at a much lower price, but under more difficult conditions than in ordinary times. In Tambov for processing 1 dess., with cleaning and delivery of bread to the threshing floor, with timely hiring, from 8 to 12 rubles are paid; when hired in winter, the same work is valued at 4 rubles. 50 k. - 5 rubles. In Elatom in the summer they pay 5-7 rubles for stubble. from the tithe; when hired in the fall, they give 3-4 rubles for him, and sometimes 2 rubles. 50 kop. A needy peasant in hard times is often hired from several masters at once and takes deposits from all; then, when a difficult time comes, he does not have time to cope with all the accumulated work, does it somehow or does not show up at all. Knowing that others are working alongside him at twice the price - especially during harvest time - he does not consider himself morally connected with the employer and often in the hottest time passes to another owner who has offered a higher pay. Judging by the data of provincial conferences, the employers themselves recognize the disadvantage of such a state of affairs, especially those who are beginning to understand the need for a transition to a more rational culture that requires more careful labor. The local small-land peasants, who are hired at low prices, greatly reduce the wages of real rural laborers. In the provinces of the central non-chernozem before, the need for alien R. was not noticed due to the insignificance of crops from the owners; but now, with the development in these provinces of a retreat to non-agricultural trades, sometimes even labor forces necessary for local agriculture, they are beginning to be needed. According to Yaroslavl lips. statistician, committee, from many localities of the Yaroslavl province. local able-bodied peasants leave for the cities and factories, and their place even on their own farms is taken by alien hired peasants from the Tver, Vologda, and Arkhangelsk provinces. IN southern steppe provinces permanent jobs are carried out by fixed-term R. (labor laborers) and local daily R.; but in times of trouble, as has already been said, many foreign workers from the middle provinces come here. Special markets for agricultural hired labor were formed, among which jobs stand out in particular. Kakhovka and the village. Dzhankoy Tauride lips. At the first during the Nikolskaya fair, on May 9, up to 24,000 workers of both sexes accumulate, and at the second from May 1 to 15 - up to 5,000. The unemployed here disperse to secondary markets (railway stations, bazaars). These markets have no organizations; only (the Kherson zemstvo) has established sanitary supervision of newcomers R. Recently, in some southern provinces (Kherson, Tauride), local peasants who have their own hay-mowers and reaping machines or steam threshers have been hired for piece work. After finishing work at home, these peasants are hired to harvest and thresh grain in large savings or from other peasants. IN eastern steppes, beyond the Volga, farm laborers and newcomers rarely use R.; Newcomers R. are hired in most cases on a piece-rate basis. in the provinces the Vistula And Baltic Ownership farms are carried on almost exclusively by farm labor with a full master's live and dead inventory. IN southwestern provinces, most of the work is done by local rural districts. In the Volyn province. hiring for summer work of the lower ranks of troops stationed in the given locality, which is convenient for landowners, but significantly lowers the price of labor for peasant peasants. In the counties bordering Austria-Hungary, R. from Galicia are found in some economies. In this area, time-limited R. is often practiced in the winter, at sugar refineries. Recruitment methods rural R. the following: 1) R. themselves are in the economy and ask for work (mainly in the central black earth provinces), 2) hiring is carried out by clerks and managers (southwestern provinces.) or so-called. economic agents(Kharkov province.), Which according to public holidays after mass, usually near the church, they hire R. or travel for this purpose to villages, especially arrears, and where there are hiring markets, they come to these markets; 3) one of the more prosperous local peasants takes in savings contract for certain work and for its execution, he hires other peasants from himself. This method of hiring began to be observed only very recently (Tambov province.). Sometimes the peasants-owners of rented steam threshers (Tavricheskaya Gubernia) are the suppliers of rural workers for the time of threshing. When hiring, passports are taken from workers, sometimes outerwear. Contracts are usually concluded verbally. Relatively wages In rural districts, there is extensive and well-developed material, especially in relation to daily wages. The Department of Agriculture and Rural Industry annually collects through its correspondents and publishes information about the pay of the draft and foot worker (and female worker). Information about the annual and summer fees was collected by the same department and developed by S. A. Korolenko. For piece prices, the department collected and, according to A. F. Fortunatov, carefully worked out under the guidance of A. A. Schultz, rich material on the costs of producing the main grains. A summary of all these data is made by the Office of the Committee of Ministers. According to the summary of this last edition, for 1882-91. the highest average annual payment of R. on the master's grubs was in Tauride Gubernia. (104 rubles), in the St. Petersburg province. (102 rubles, with the exception of three counties - St. Petersburg, Tsarskoye Selo and Peterhof), in the Region. Troops of the Don (90 rubles) and in the Courland province. (90 rubles), and the lowest - in the lips. Volyn (80 rubles), Grodno (37 rubles), Kovno (43 rubles) and Podolsk (44 rubles). With the transfer of food to a monetary value, the highest payment falls on Petersburg province, with the exception of the 3 named counties (102 rubles. Dens. Square + 65 rubles. The average cost of food = 167 rubles), then on the provinces. Tauride (163 rubles), Livonian and Estonian (140 rubles); the smallest - to Volynskaya (70 rubles), Podolskaya (77 rubles 50 kopecks) and Grodno (84 rubles). The wages of a worker are the highest (on the master's grub) in the Tauride Gubernia. (54 rubles), the smallest - in Grodno, Vilna, Orenburg and Volyn (25 1 / 2); with the transfer of food to cash payment, the highest payment was in St. Petersburg province. (115 rubles in 3 named uu. and 125 rubles in the rest). Thus, the highest average for 10 years of plateau-annual R. turned out in the southern steppe zone, where there is a particularly strong demand for hired R., and then in the Baltic provinces, where the supply of labor is insufficient. The worst conditions are found in the rivers of the western and southwestern strip, where, despite the density of the population, railway lines of communication and the manufacturing industry are poorly developed. According to the Department of Agriculture, in the Courland province. for the satisfaction of the needs of local agriculture, for example, only 86,987 people remain, while in Kovno province. this remainder is 295,327 people, and in the first factory industry is almost 2 1/2 times more developed than in the second. In addition, according to the testimony of the owners, anyone will gladly pay more to the developed, skillful Courland farm laborer (that is, the rural worker in the proper sense, who, moreover, is not unprofitable for competition from the neighboring peasant-owner), than the incompetent Kovno Litvin (semi-proletarian, semi-owner) . The average annual payment of R. throughout Russia is 61 rubles, while the cost of maintaining a R. is determined on average at 46 rubles. Summer the fee does not fluctuate so much from place to place as does the annual fee. In the western and southwestern regions, such wages do not differ much from annual wages, i.e., winter labor is little appreciated there: the opposite phenomenon is noticed in the lips. southern and Baltic.

Average for 10 years, in 1882-91, by the day the fee is:

Daily wages for a working man on foot (in kopecks) for 1882-91:

In total, daily wages are lower during spring sowing. In all chernozem gubernias, the work of a worker is most highly valued during harvesting, and in all non-chernozem gubernias, during haymaking. Above the average price in the Baltic, southern, steppe and northwestern provinces; the smallest boards differ lips. southwestern, western and northern chernozem. Spring boards are more stable than boards during haymaking and harvesting. In some cases, the greatest fluctuations in daily wages were observed in the southern steppe bays. (from 15 k. to 5 p., on own grubs). Daily payments of 10-15 k. are considered hungry wages and correspond to the value of the worker's cheap subsistence, as is shown by the difference between wages for work with the worker's own food and with the master's. This average difference for all of Russia during spring sowing is 11 kopecks, and during haymaking and grain harvesting, when a lot of labor is expended due to the severity and haste of work, it is 13 kopecks. , prevails over hiring with the master's grubs. Women's daily wages on the master's grubs represent geographical fluctuations, similar to the fluctuations of men's wages. The ratio of women's wages to men's in non-Chernozem Russia is higher than in Chernozem. In general, it rarely exceeds 2/3 of the men's wages. Comparison of wages for a pedestrian worker with a wage draft shows to workers that the latter exceeds the former by approximately the amount of horsepower paid for work. According to the latest published data dpt. ground and rural prom., the highest daily wage for a working man on foot during the harvest of bread in the summer of 1898 on their grub was in the Novorossiysk provinces: Yekaterinoslav - 1 p. 36 k., Kherson - 1 p. 19 k., Donskoy Oblast - 1 p. 12 k. and Tauride - 1 p. 1 k. The smallest fee: in the lips. Kazan - 39 k., Ufa and Grodno - 41 k., Simbirsk and Vilna - 43 k., Volyn and Vyatka - 47 k., Minsk - 48 k., Penza - 49 k.; in other provinces, the fee fluctuated between 1 p. and 50 kop. The highest average pay for a foot worker in master's grub was in the provinces: Yekaterinoslav - 1 rub. 18 k., Kherson - 1 r., Donskoy - 90 k., Tauride - 80 k.; the smallest - in the provinces: Kazan - 30 kopecks, Ufa - 33 kopecks, Simbirsk and Vilna - 34 kopecks, Volyn and Vyatka - 35 kopecks, Oryol, Penza and Grodno - 40 kopecks; in other provinces prices fluctuated between 80 and 40 k. piecework wages are especially common in relation to the harvesting of bread, but are also of great importance in hiring for processing; it varies widely depending on the conditions of place and time. On average, for the full processing of one tithe for rye, with sowing, 6 rubles are paid. 81 kopecks (5 p. 81 kop. in chernoz provinces, 8 p. 4 kopecks in non-black ones). For harvesting the scythe of spring sowing, the cheapest price is paid in the Kazan and Ryazan provinces. (1 p. 65 k. per tithe) and above all in Bessarabskaya (5 p. 50 k.) and Saratov (5 p.); for winter harvesting, the lowest payment is also in Kazan province, the highest - in Lifland (5 rubles 73 k.). For harvesting spring crops with a sickle, the lowest payment is in Kaluga (2 p. 50 k.), the highest in Arkhangelsk (6 p.), winter - the lowest in Mogilev (3 p. 45 k.), the highest in Tver, Arkhangelsk and Estlyandskaya (6 p. ). Information on the prevalence of agricultural machinery during harvesting is available as follows (see ed. Kants. kom. min., Table VIII): the Orenburg province provides the largest percentage of arable land on which machines are used. (50%), then Yekaterinoslav (40%), Podolsk (38%), Taurida (37.8%), Poltava (17%), Kharkiv (16%), Saratov (10%), Kherson (9%); in others it is even lower. These data, however, are only approximate, and are relative to some lips. (e.g. V. Donsk region) no data at all.

Attempts legislative regulation relations between R. rural and employers begin soon after the abolition of serfdom. Already in 1863 they published temporary rules for hiring for rural work, which introduced the so-called workbook, but it remained almost useless. In the 70s. drafted general position about hiring R. in general, including rural ones, but he did not receive the force of law. On June 12, 1886, the "Regulations on hiring for agricultural work" (St. Z. XII vol. I part) was approved, which is still valid at the present time (it is applicable only when hiring urgent workers). This "Regulation" allows employers and workers to conclude a contract either verbally or in writing; in the latter case, the penalty for breach of contract is determined by the Regulations, in the former case, by general civil laws (see Personal hire). In addition to recovering from the arbitrarily departed worker a remuneration in the amount of 3 months' salary, the employer may, through the police, demand the return of the worker; if the latter is unwilling to fulfill this requirement, he is subject to criminal liability (under Art. 51 2 of the Constitution on Taxation of the Peace Court). Criminal liability is established by the "Regulations" of 1886 for the employer, but not for violation of the contract with the workers, but for poaching workers from another employer, and the employer who accepted the worker, bound by another contract, may be sued for damages. According to provincial conferences, the Regulations of 1886 are applied very little. R., being in most cases illiterate, are afraid to conclude written contracts. Civil penalties from R., according to the owners, "have nothing to take", and criminal prosecutions represent only a number of troubles for the employer, and the worker brought by the police gives work of the lowest quality. Since 1886, the issue of changing the hiring regulations did not leave the queue: it was discussed in different societies, at the All-Russian Agricultural Congress (1896), then in special provincial meetings, and in May 1898 it was submitted to the Agricultural Council under the Ministry of Agriculture and State . property. Here the majority voted in favor of a general legislative regulation of relations for the hiring of rural workers, but at the same time the vast majority rejected the introduction of a universally obligatory work book. The council also did not consider the partial introduction of contract books for certain types of employment desirable, since this would not eliminate the possibility of concluding an agreement with several tenants at the same time. The Council considered it desirable to establish criminal liability for both parties for violation of the contract and to consider cases on such violations not only by volost courts, but also by other judicial institutions and, moreover, in an expedited manner. It is impossible not to notice that now the nature of relations between employers and workers is somewhat different than in the 70s and 80s. Then for employers, especially in the southern provinces, there was a strong need for workers and dependence on the latter in times of trouble. Now the south has settled, machines have greatly reduced the demand for labor; meanwhile, the supply of labor not only did not decrease, but increased significantly, and violations of verbal and written contracts by workers are becoming an exception, as the provincial conferences also testified to. Such violations usually occur with the above method of hiring in advance for a negligible pay, and in general through the fault of the employers themselves, who sometimes feed the worker badly or delay the payment of wages. IN general relationship between employers and workers have already assumed such a character, when the loss for the worker is more unprofitable than the observance of even an unfavorable contract for him.

Literature. A. Buchenberger, "Agrarwesen und Agrarpolitik" (Vol. I, 1892, in A. Wagner's "Lehr- und Handbuch d. P. Oek.", III); A. Ludogovsky, "Fundamentals of Agricultural. economy" (1875); Y. Janson, "Comparative statistics of the population" (1892); N. Kablukov, "The question of workers in agriculture" (1884); his own, "On the conditions for the development of the peasant economy in Russia" (1898) ; Fr. Engels, "Die Lage der arbeitenden Klassen iu England" (1892); Marx, "Capital" (vol. I); T. Kebbel, "The agricultural laborer" (1887); W. Hasbach, "Die englischen Landarbeiter in den letzten hundert lahren" (1894, in "Schrift. d. Ver. für Soc. Pol.", LIX); "Royal commission of Labor. The agricultural Laborer"; De Rouzier, "The trade unions of the R. in England" (1898); F. Reitzenslein u. E. Nasse, "Agrarische Zustä nde in Frankreich u. England" (1884, in "Sehr. d. V. f. Spl.", XXVII); "Statistique agricole de la France. R ésultats généraux de Fenquête décennale de 1882"; J. Jaurè s, "Socialisme et Paysans" (1897); F. Knapp, "Slavery and Freedom in rural labor"(Appendix to the edition of M. I. Vodovozova," History of Labor ", from Conrad" s "Handw ö rterbuch"); O. Gekk, "Distribution of the population of Germany according to occupations according to the censuses of 1882 and 1895." (in the collection of N. Garin "From the economic life of Western Europe", issue I); I. Schmidt, "The economic structure of Bavaria according to the data of 1882-92." (ibid.); th. Goltz, "Die ländliche Arbeiterklasse u. der preussisch. Staat" (1893); M. Weber, "Die Verhä ltnisse der Landarbeiter in ostelbischen Deutschland" (1892, in "Schr. d. V. I. Socio l.", LV); "Verhandlungen des Vereins f. Socialpolitik über des landliche Arbeiterfrage" (1895, "Schriften d. V.", LVIII); "Berufs- und Gewerbe Zä hlung von 14 June 1895. Die Landwirtschaft im Deutsch. Reiche" (1898, "Statistik d. deutsch. Reiches"; set forth by J. Conrad in his "Jahrb. f. N. u. S. ", 1898), K. Frankenstein, "Die Arbeiterfrage in den deutschen Landwirtschaft" (1897); Eheberg, "Agrarische Zust ä nde in Italien" (1886, in "Sehr. d. V. f. Socp.", XXIX) ; E. Kreicsi, "Gesetzentwurf üb. die Regelung d. Rechtsverhä ltnisse zwischen den Arbeitgebern u. den landwirtsch. Arbeitern" (in Braun's "Archiv f. soc. Gesetzgeb.", XII, vol. I, 1898); P. Fahlberck. "Die l ä ndliche Arbeiterfrage in Schweden" (1894, "Schr. d. V. f. Spl.", LIX); D. Zinner, "Professional Statistics of Switzerland" (in the collection of Garin); L. Krzhivitsky, "Capitalization of the agricultural industry" ("World of God", 1898, II-X); S. A. Korolenko, "Wage labor in the owner's farms and the movement of workers" (1892, "Agricultural and statistical information", ed. Dpt. land and rural industry, issue V); "The cost of production of the main breads in European Russia" (1890, same ed., issue III); "Materials on the question of the cost of cultivating land in European Russia" (1889, "Temporary Central Statistical Committee", Nos. 10 and 12); "Earnings of peasants and emigration to America" ​​(1891, "Proceedings of Varsh. statistic. com.", issue V); "Comparative Statistics of Earnings of the Rural Population and Emigration to America" ​​(1892, ibid., issue VIII); "Code of Statistical Materials Concerning the Rural Population of European Russia" (published by the Office of the Committee of Ministers, 1894); H. Blagoveshchensky, "Consolidated statistical collection of economic data on zemstvo household censuses. T. I. Peasant economy"(1893); A. Fortunatov," Agricultural. statistics" (1893); S. Rudnev, "Crafts of the peasants of Europe. Russia "(1894, collection of Sarat. Provincial Zemstvos); "Collection of conclusions on issues related to the revision of the provision on June 12, 1886 on hiring for rural work" (1898); a presentation of the contents of this collection was made by N. Brzhesky, " Employers and workers in agriculture "(" Russian Economic Review ", 1898, X); N. Karyshev," Labor, its role and conditions of application in production (1897); book. N. Shakhovskoy, "Agricultural seasonal trades" (1896); I. Gurvich, "The Economic Situation of the Russian Village" (1896); N. Tezyakov, "Agricultural workers in general and newcomers in particular in the Kherson province in sanitary terms" ("Collected Kherson Land", 1891, 8); M. Uvarov, "The Program for the Study of Alien Workers" (ibid.); L. Kirillov, "Laying crafts of the peasants of the Yaroslavl province." (Section I: "Overview of the Yaroslavl province.", ed. Yaroslavl provincial statistical committee; issue II, ed. A. Svirshchevsky); I. Reva, "The Kyiv peasant and his economy" (1893); M. Tugan-Baranowsky, "Albeiterschutzgesetzgebung in Russland" (1898, in "Conrad's Handwörterb.", 2nd ed.). For many references to articles on rural rural areas in periodical literature, see E.M. Dementiev, "Factory" (bibliographic appendix, p. 14). For guidance on the literature on the conclusion of a contract of employment by rural farmers, see E. I. Yakushkin, "Customary Law" (Issue II, 486). See also Peasants, Outdoor crafts , Hiring.

During pre-revolutionary Russia and the Soviet period. In the Novgorod dialect they were called "Cossack" and "Cossack", in the southern regions - "hired" and "hired". Who are the laborers? What does this concept mean? What is the history of its origin? This will be discussed in the article.

The meaning of the word "farm laborer"

In the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language Efremova, two definitions are given to the term:

• it is a hired worker in agriculture;
• hired worker (most often used in colloquial speech).

In Ozhegov's dictionary, a definition is given: this is a hired worker employed in agriculture by landlords or kulaks.

Ushakov's dictionary defines the expression "who is a laborer" - this is an agricultural worker hired by a kulak or landowner for physical labor on the farm.

The meaning of the concept according to Dahl's dictionary: in the village, for field work. “Going to be farm laborers” means going to work for strangers.

From this term came the cognate words:

• laborer (labor) - which means hard physical labor;
• farm work - hard hired work;
• to work as a laborer - to be hired;
• farm work - occupation, condition, title of a person.

In the dictionary of Efron and Brockhaus, the concept means among the Tatars - single. So in Ancient Russia, single peasants who did not have their own households were called, who were forced to work for others for pay or maintenance. Such people were also called beans, tepters, kutniks. At present, these terms have been lost in Russian and are practically not used, only the name "labor laborer" remains, which is used to refer to a person of peasant origin who works for others.

Origin of the concept

There is a version that the word "farm laborer" comes from the Tatar word "bachelor". And indeed, until the 17th century, unmarried peasants who worked for others were called on the territory of Russia.

According to another version, the word "labor laborer" comes from the Turkic word "batyr" - who is engaged in hard physical labor, works for hire from a landowner or wealthy kulak.

There is another version, according to which the word comes from the Turkic "badrak", which was the name in the XV-XVI century of stocky, strong warriors from the guard of the Crimean khans, who came from the Polovtsian tribes and did not have their own land allotments. After the formation of the Crimean Khanate, they became a privileged military class.

In the 19th century, laborers were called people who were forced to go to work and be hired to work on farms.

Over time, the concept began to refer to a disenfranchised worker and replaced the word "employee", which was used in the southern part of Russia.

Who is a laborer at the present time? Nowadays, the term in its primary meaning is practically not used in Russian speech, it is used only for the name of a person, as a rule, of a peasant origin, who works as an employee, or is engaged in heavy physical labor, and who represents cheap labor.

Instead of a conclusion

So, who is a person who is a hired worker in the agricultural industry in pre-revolutionary Russia and the USSR, often poor, deprived of land and property. This is a peasant who is engaged in hard physical labor, receiving a salary or working for maintenance.

An agricultural worker is a farm worker who works under the direction of a foreman or farmer. At present, agricultural workers are employed mainly in large farms Oh. A good agricultural worker has professional skills and works with initiative.

Job responsibilities

The duties of an agricultural worker include field and forestry work, sometimes also caring for animals. Types of work vary depending on the production profile of the farm and the time of year. After the spring sowing work, the care of the crops follows, then haymaking, harvesting and the necessary autumn work. In winter - crop processing, forestry work on the lands of the farm, as well as various works related to the repair and maintenance. Also, an agricultural worker can participate in the construction and repair of industrial premises. He works throughout the farm under the authority of a farmer or foreman. Depending on the type of work performed, various agricultural machines and equipment, as well as tools are used. Work is carried out during the day, but work time varies depending on the season and the peak of employment.

Places of work

Farms.

Job Requirements

The worker must be proactive and have extensive knowledge in different types works and their stages due to the fact that the types of work in the farm often change. You must be able to use the machines, equipment and tools necessary for the work.

An agricultural worker must be in good shape, as some types of work require a certain physical strength. Forestry work is especially difficult in winter. Working in horticulture, sometimes you have to lift and move heavy loads when fertilizing the soil and sowing, as well as when harvesting and processing crops. The agricultural worker sometimes has to work in an uncomfortable posture and under difficult conditions depending on the machinery and equipment used. Noise, vibration, dust, heat and cold can be protected by using good tools and various protective devices.

Education

To obtain the profession of an agricultural worker, passing the basic exam in the specialty of agriculture is suitable. In addition, the exam can be taken through on-the-job training under an apprenticeship contract or as a demonstration exam. A worker who has good working skills can take a demonstration exam, for example, a professional exam in the field of agriculture. Besides, educational establishments organize short-term professional courses for advanced training.

Salary

When remunerating agricultural workers, the salary recommendations contained in the collective employment contract"Entrepreneurship in countryside". Salary varies depending on the responsibility of the work, work experience and professional skills.

Information about the labor market

(Information on the labor market applies to the entire professional field, it is not limited to the profession described above.)

AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRY

The agricultural industry is an important employer in rural areas. Approximately 90,000 people are directly employed in agriculture, of which approximately 80,000 are entrepreneurs or members of their families. Approximately 10,000 employees. In addition to primary production, agriculture indirectly provides employment throughout the food chain, especially in Food Industry, trade and transport.

When measured in terms of employment, agricultural farms are the largest employers, followed by dairy and horticultural farms. The number of people working on farms, especially livestock, and also in agriculture has declined significantly in recent decades, while the size of farms and labor productivity have increased.

Additional workers would be needed for replacement during holidays, as well as for work in gardening and landscaping. Contract work provides employment during sowing, silage harvesting, threshing, as well as energy wood harvesting and chip production, for example.

The number of people working in agriculture continues to decrease. On the other hand, the average age of those working in agriculture is high, and therefore a new workforce is needed to replace the retired entrepreneurs. Due to the age structure of the rural population, the situation with the availability of labor is deteriorating.

The number of farms providing basic livelihoods continues to decline, and an increasingly large proportion of farm income comes from activities other than agriculture. New employment opportunities are provided by the diversification of farming, contract work, subcontracting and other entrepreneurial activities.

Encyclopedic Dictionary of Economics and Law

A, m. 1. He who works, works. Now an academician, now a hero, Now a navigator, now a carpenter, He is an all-encompassing soul On the eternal throne was a worker. Pushkin, Stansy. As a worker, this young and strong man was not worth a penny of copper. Next to the power in ... ... Small Academic Dictionary

A, m. A hired agricultural worker in a landlord or kulak economy ... Small Academic Dictionary

laborer- , a, m. Hired agricultural worker in the kulak economy. MAC, vol. 1, 65 ... Explanatory Dictionary of the Language of Soviet Deputies

WORKMAN- hired agricultural worker, usually from impoverished peasants ... Legal Encyclopedia

Hired worker for a monetary salary. Russkaya Pravda (Troitsky par., art. 53) emphasizes particularly role purchases, i.e., arable workers who, when hired, sometimes rented land from the owner and received agricultural implements. Z. is not a serf ...

Rural in the proper sense are those persons who take a direct part in agriculture with their labor by placing their labor under a contract of employment at the disposal of agricultural entrepreneurs ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

Public, "... large groups of people, differing in their place in a historically defined system social production, according to their relation (for the most part fixed and formalized in laws) to the means of production, according to their role ...

Social classes of community, distinguished in relation to property and the social division of labor. In the social class structure of society, the main ones are distinguished (the existence of which directly follows from the dominant ones in this ... ... Wikipedia

Estonia (Eesti NSV). I. General Information The Estonian SSR was formed on July 21, 1940. Since August 6, 1940, it has been part of the USSR. It is located in the northwest of the European part of the USSR, on the coast of the Baltic Sea, between Finnish (in the north) and Riga ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

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