What is the name of a hired worker in agriculture. Rural workers. Requirements for work

Rural workers

Rural in the proper sense are those persons who are directly involved in agriculture by their labor by giving their labor under a contract of employment to the disposal of agricultural entrepreneurs for a certain fee, the latter being for them the exclusive or at least the main source of funds. to existence. In these features, rural R. differs from the slave and serf, who work for the landowner under compulsion, from the independent peasant who lives on income from his own plot, and from the handicraft worker and factory proletarian employed in branches of production other than agriculture. It also follows from the above definition that rural R., in their own way social status (wage- the main source of food) should be considered only as one of the divisions of the working class in general. In addition to rural R. in the proper sense, in many countries there is still a large contingent of people who, although they resort to agricultural work for hire, but, owning plots of land themselves as property or lease, look at wages only as an auxiliary source of income. and not as the main one. This category of persons belonging to rural R. in broad sense, represents a transitional group between completely independent peasants and rural R. in a narrow sense. Time of occurrence rural workers as a special social class should be attributed in most countries to the time of the fall of serfdom, in which landowners, using forced labor, almost did not need hired workers, and almost every farmer was endowed with a certain amount of land. Only since the abolition of serfdom is it possible to deprive part of the peasantry (see Peasants) on the one hand, and the development of farms with hired labor, on the other. Contributed to both and the rapid after the liberation of the peasants, the change in economic relations: the development of large industry, the decline of rural crafts, a decrease in local additional, non-agricultural earnings. Distribution of rural workers into separate categories on various grounds, it seems far from being as sharp and definite as the distribution of industrial workers. The insignificance of the division of labor and division of occupations in agriculture often leads to the fact that within the same economy the same persons find themselves employed, in turn, in field cultivation, meadow cultivation, horse breeding, large cattle, sheep breeding, pig breeding, horticulture and horticulture, and sometimes in the processing of various agricultural products (cheese making, butter making, etc.). However, this state of affairs has begun to change recently. Separate branches not only stand out from the composition of the same economy, but also territorially separate (Texas cattle breeding, Dakota wheat fields, Australian sheepfolds, strawberry fields near New York, Dutch dairy farms, butter factories in Canada, etc.). In accordance with this, the position of rural workers is changing, and they are beginning to group themselves into special professional categories. Many changes have been made and are also being made by the increasing use of machines in agriculture. Unevenness of demand in a hired labor on seasons(see R. time in agriculture) determines the division of rural R. according to the terms of employment. Permanent or deadline workers (farm laborers) are hired for a more or less long period, live on the farm, usually receive from the latter premises, food and a contractual amount of money for a year or for a period of work, committing, for their part, to perform all the work entrusted by the farm. The relative number of term labor in the economy depends mainly on the size of the economy and the greater or lesser rationality of its management. As a rule, permanent workers are kept mainly to care for livestock, and all harness work is performed by temporary workers. A special type of fixed-term workers are sedentary workers: they receive a room for a family, a certain amount of land for a vegetable garden, potatoes, flax and the right to keep a cow at the owner's stern, pledging to come to all work for a day wage specified in the contract on the basis of a husband, wife and a single worker who must be kept in his family sedentary R. This type of employment is widespread in Germany; in Russia, it almost never occurs. All those handicraft, for the production of which the deadlines are insufficient on the farm, are performed by temporary workers, piecework or daytime. Piecework workers are hired, preferably before the day, mainly for work easily controlled by counting or measure (harvesting bread, mowing, harvesting root crops, sunflowers, corn, digging ditches, shearing sheep, transporting livestock owned by the workers themselves). Day laborers, receiving remuneration for the time of work, they undertake to perform all work as directed by the owner for a certain number of hours a day: from 10 to 12 in the summer and from 6 to 8 in the winter. The need for this type of workers on private farms is mainly due to the extraordinary accumulation in some short-term periods of work requiring urgent execution (haymaking and grain harvesting). The main contingent of day laborers usually consists of neighboring land-poor peasants; therefore, in most cases, day laborers receive payment only in money, on their food. A special type of day laborers is represented in sparsely populated areas. alien R., coming from more populated areas at the time of intensive work. So, from Central Russia R. go to the south and across the Volga to harvest hay and grain and for other work. Rhine R. go to the Black Forest for a while; R. come to East Prussia from Russia. When such workers are hired and there are no large villages near the farm, if necessary, they must provide them with food and accommodate them. In southern climates, a significant number of permanent workers can be kept; in the north, where the period of work is shorter, in the spring and autumn, daily hiring is required on a large scale. Abundant harvest it also sometimes causes an urgent need for temporary workers, and the significance of this factor seems to be all the greater since, given the current state of meteorological knowledge, neither R., nor entrepreneurs can foresee in advance in what area and in what quantity more labor will be required. Many of the villages. R. (in the broad sense) have small land plots on the basis of ownership or lease. Hence the distribution of rural settlements into the category of complete "owners," horseless, landless, homeless, and vagrants. General conditions affecting altitude wages in general (see Wages), are complicated in agriculture by fluctuations in the height of the demand for labor of rural workers, determined by the season, climate and harvest, as well as by the cash flow of many of the workers on their own economy. The influence of the latter factor is considered by some researchers as a circumstance favorable for rural workers due to their lower economic dependence from the employer when concluding a legally free contract. According to others, in most such cases, wages are reduced by the entire amount that the worker can work on his own site, and the connection with his own allotment makes it difficult for workers to choose a more profitable employer, forcing them to sell their labor to local owners. The third factor that determines the level of wages in agriculture is the extremely low level of needs of the rural worker. Significance of application in the agricultural industry natural wages also do not remain without a significant influence on the height of all wages and, moreover, due to the low level of the worker's needs, rather in a disadvantageous direction for him than in an advantageous one. In good years for landowners, when prices for agricultural produce are high, employers tend to move towards cash payments; in years of low grain prices, the opposite phenomenon is observed. The forms of wages in kind are the supply of workers with foodstuffs, premises, and sometimes an independent small farm. Ludogovsky defines the following number of main food items, which are usually relied on in rationally managed farms for farm laborers per year: rye bread 500-650 lbs., Other types of grain (wheat, buckwheat, barley, peas) 150-220 lbs., Potatoes 400-1000 lbs. ., meat and fish 50-100 lb., lard and miscellaneous oils 16-50 lb., salt 20-50 lb. per person (except milk, vegetables, etc.). In most cases, food costs well below this norm, especially for temporary workers. Reward is a form of payment in kind. out of share product. The following reward is considered normal: for complete harvesting of grain, without threshing - from 1/15 to 1/9 of the harvest; for threshing - from 1/9 to 1/15 threshed grain; for the complete harvesting of hay from mediocre meadows 30-40% of the harvested, good meadows - 25%; for harvesting potatoes from 1/12 to 1/15 tubers. Introduction agricultural machines greatly reduced the demand for labor and wages. According to the calculations of French agronomists, the use of machines reduces labor costs in France by 25 francs. per year per hectare. The introduction of machining begins to eliminate the difference between the state and nature of labor in agriculture and in factories.

Legal and general social status rural workers are in less favorable conditions than those of the industrial proletariat. The legislation governing the relationship between employers and workers in agriculture was created almost everywhere under the influence of completely different conditions than factory legislation. It seeks not so much to protect economically the weakest side in the contract of employment, how much to establish guarantees of compliance with the once concluded contract. This remark applies to the last of the legislative projects of this kind - the Hungarian one, caused by the colossal strike of the reapers, which engulfed a large part of Hungary in the summer of 1897. According to the criticism of this project, Krejcsi, the demands of the rural workers, announced at their congress in February 1897 (the exact establishment of the length of the working day, the legislative abolition of piecework, the prohibition of payment in kind, insurance against sickness and accidents, the establishment of Sunday rest, the establishment of agricultural inspections by analogy with a factory inspection, etc.) are satisfied with the project only to the smallest extent.

The Situation of Rural Workers in Western Europe. In England the position of small landowners and tenants who turned into hired workers until the middle of the 19th century. it was extremely disastrous. In 1863 it was officially recognized that free rural R. eat incomparably worse than criminals deprived of their liberty. The weekly amount of food for both turned out to be the following (according to K. Marx):

Further economic development England led already in the early 1980s to a significant improvement in the living conditions of rural R. The weekly payment of rural R., which in 1770 was equal to an average of 7 shillings. 3 p., Had risen to 9 shillings by 1850. 7 p., And in 1880 up to 14 shillings; daily from 8pen. in 1870 it reached 1 shill. 5 pen. in 1850 and up to 2 shillings. in 1880, along with the improvement in the position of rural workers, there was a numerical decrease:

In subsequent periods, the number of rural R. continued to decrease. In 1881 there were only 870798 of them, including 40346 women, and in 1891 - 780707 people, of which 756557 mzhch. and 24150 women. In 1891, a commission was formed in England to study the life of workers, including those in the countryside. According to the data she collected, the average weekly wage in 1892 was 13 shillings. 5 2/3 pence, that is, lower than in 1880, but higher than in the 50s. Since the price of the worker's necessary foodstuffs has decreased compared to the previous period:

then we can admit that real pay higher than the previous one.

In France, according to official data in 1883, out of 18,758,011 people. the productive population in agriculture employed 6,915,965 people. Of the latter, there were 4,046,164 people. owners, 97835 people senior officials and 2,771,966 people. workers. The average daily wages of rural workers (in francs) are as follows:

The average annual wage to farm laborers does not exceed 290 francs. for an adult shepherd, 324 fr. for an adult farmer, 235 fr. for woman. Recently in rural France there has been an increase in unemployment due to the introduction of agricultural machinery. However, as low as agricultural labor in France is today, there is still some improvement in comparison with the 60s. Thus, according to Schmoller, from 1862 to 1882, the average daily daily wage with food in rural R. increased by 0.16 francs, wages without food - by 0.36, wages for a full-time laborer (annual laborer) - by 60 - 70 francs (20 - 26%), for a female employee - by 106 francs. (80%).

V Germany, according to the 1895 trade census, with a general decrease in the agricultural population compared with 1882 from 42.51% to 35.74% of the total population, the number of independent owners absolutely increased from 2,288,033 to 2,591,725, while the number of workers dropped from 5,881,819 to 5619794 souls. In 1882, rural R. accounted for 71.41% of the total rural population, landlords 27.78% and senior officials 0.81%, in 1895 the same relations were expressed in the figures 67.77%, 30.07, and 1, sixteen%. With the introduction of a more rational culture and with the use of improved agricultural machinery, more skilled workers are required. The labor of ordinary workers has been replaced to a certain extent by the work of machines. The use of the latter has increased quite significantly:

Comparative data for the main states of Germany shows the following minimum and maximum average annual payments:

If we take all the data showing the ratio in different countries of the number of employers and those who are hired, for approximately the same years as a percentage, we get the following (Janson):

V Of Russia the question of what is more profitable for the landowner - serf or wage labor, was raised at the end of the serf era (see Peasants). With the emancipation of the peasants, the supply of labor increased; the land allotment allotted to a peasant family in most cases turned out to be very meager; I had to go to be hired to work for a landowner. However, the land was cultivated for so long by the peasants with their own implements that it was not easy for the landowner to go over to the independent organization of hired labor. Hence the wide spread of peasant lease of landlords' land. Later, land prices began to rise: rental prices also rose, and only wealthy peasants could do land surveying. The change in economic relations in the bowels of the village itself led to an increase in the supply of labor. The weakening of some farms was the foundation for the strengthening of others; the strengthening of the latter, conversely, led to an even greater weakening of the former. Dishorsed and landless could only look for outside earnings, especially since the local handicrafts, where they existed, began to fall. Hired labor in the middle black earth provinces fell in price; the landowner who did not manage to lease his land for a more or less high price, it became more profitable to work it with hired labor. At the same time, there was a growing need for wage labor in the south and southeast, where vast expanses of land that had previously been used for cattle breeding began to be plowed up. In the late 60s, in the early 70s, a real work fever began there; labor prices at "critical moments" in agriculture rose to fabulous heights, and word of this attracted crowds of poor people from Central Russia. This movement did not weaken in subsequent years, but became more uniform. It was then that the "rural labor question" arose in Russia. Together with the indicated movement of workers to the south, there was a further development of the rural proletariat in its homeland, in the Middle and Northern Russia... Every famine, every crop failure, every loss of livestock weakened many of the peasant-owners, deprived them of live implements, made their labor cheaper, increased their financial need. A significant role in the formation of the rural proletariat was played by the disintegration that began after the fall of serfdom due to the divisions of the large family community. In a word, a vast class of wage laborers emerged, the majority of whom receive their livelihoods not only from the sale of their labor power, but also from their own small plots of land, which does not always pay off the duties that lie on it. More or less accurate data on the number of rural R. in Russia are not available. On the basis of zemstvo household censuses relating to 81 uyezds in 13 provinces, one of the zemstvo statisticians, S. F. Rudnev, made, however, an attempt to determine the total number of workers for the whole of Russia. In 25 chernozem provinces, there are about 10,731,483 of all working-age men; it can be assumed that of these, 25% - 2,682,870 people. - are hired for agricultural work. In 26 non-chernozem provinces, there are about 7,124,640 mzhch. working age; about 1/10 of them, or 712,400 people, are usually hired for rural work... Thus, the total number of rural R. is approximately 3,395,000. The distribution of the percentage of workers in 81 counties is as follows:

There are agricultural workers per 100 men of working age:

According to the terminology of the zemstvo censuses, these R. Farm laborers, or term R., in accordance with the length of the lease are divided into annual and semi-annual(otherwise pilots, hiring for 5-7 months, from spring to autumn). The named categories of farm laborers, in turn, are subdivided into local, who are always close to home, and latrines, those who cannot take part in their household during a difficult time. The private farms of families that single out farm laborers are far below the average peasant farms.

Peasant farms in 9 districts of the Voronezh province.

Thus, among the families that supply farm laborers, there are more often families that do not cultivate their land, without draft animals and without any livestock. In the Poltava province, farm laborers are supplied by even more disadvantaged families; in Mirgorodsky uyezd, for example, out of the total number of 2,110 farm laborers, 45% came from families with no arable land at all, 26.9% from families with arable land less than 3 dess., 24.8% from families with arable land from 3 to 6 dessiatines ... and only 3.4% of families with 6 or more dess. arable land. The number of people going to farm laborers in 76 counties of the surveyed provinces is as follows:

A larger number of farm laborers, therefore, leave the central black-earth provinces, a smaller number - from provinces with developed non-agricultural latrine and handicraft industries. Within one and the same province, significant fluctuations in the districts are observed. The total number of laborers, or term workers, can be assumed for the whole of Russia at 1,096,000, including 840,000 people. for 25 chernozem provinces and 256,000 people. on 25 non-black earth. As haymakers zemstvo statistics recorded those of the rural regions that left the middle and northern regions for the Novorossiysk and chernozem steppe provinces, mainly during the mowing of grasses and grain - "kosovitsa". These latrine workers are absent from 2 1/2 to 4 months, so they approach summer laborers. This kind of work is either done by large families, or those who rent out their land are the poorest. According to Dpt. agriculture and rural industry, mowers come mainly from the provinces of Poltava, Kiev, Podolsk, Chernigov, Voronezh, Oryol, Kursk, Tambov, Ryazan and Tula. A less significant number of such R. give lips. Smolensk, Penza, Nizhny Novgorod and Kazan. The mowers are directed mainly to the lips. Ekaterinoslavskaya, Kherson, Tauride, Stavropol and in the region of the Don and Kuban troops. According to the data collected by the provincial conferences on the revision of the law on June 12, 1886 (see N. Brzhesky), this should also include the Samara province, where up to 400 newcomers R. years of the contingent of R., as "mowers", seems impossible. According to the zemstvo councils, in the southern districts of the Kherson province. up to 100,000 people are now arriving for summer jobs; meanwhile, from Alexandria and Elisavetgrad yu. the same lips. leaves up to 40,000 people. However, these data do not distinguish between "mowers" from farm laborers. Out-of-pocket "mowers" could be called, together with S. F. Rudnev, spare element temporary rural R. In addition to farm laborers and mowers, in the group of rural R. shepherds, hiring in most cases not to individual owners, but to rural societies (under the dominance of communal land tenure, each village has its own herd). The shepherd usually hires a few more podpaskov, depending on the size of the herd. Of the surveyed provinces, the largest number of shepherds is provided by Tverskaya lips. (7.2 per 100 households), the smallest - Poltava (0.5), average - Saratov (3.1). The total number of shepherds in 73 counties is approximately 53 thousand. In the southern provinces there are special types of shepherds - shepherds, herders, herders; the owners give them huge fortunes - flocks of sheep, herds of cattle, herds of horses. In addition to farm laborers, mowers, shepherds, who in various regions make up from 60 to 96% of all rural workers, usually employed, there are also day laborers and piecework R. In this category, zemstvo statisticians included persons for whom doing day and piecework work is common, and not only an auxiliary trade in an independent household. According to the Kursk statisticians, such day laborers are common among the poorest and least well-to-do part of the population. Behind these farms, in the proper sense, there is a vast class of small and medium-sized farmers who, either due to insufficient allotment or due to other conditions, engage in hired work from neighboring landowners in the form of ancillary employment, sometimes only for pastures and runs necessary for their livestock. They are something, judging by the data of the DPT. agriculture, and according to the provincial councils, the landlord's land is mainly cultivated. In the near future, they will probably move either (the majority) into the category of farm laborers, mowers, etc., or (a minority) into the category of the well-to-do peasantry. The need for farming of one category or another is far from the same in individual regions, depending on the density of the peasant population, the size of the allotment, the method of culture (the Baltic provinces), the number of proprietary lands, the development of withdrawal to non-agricultural industries, etc. central In the provinces of the chernozem belt of European Russia, there is no need for newcomers, most of the work is performed by local forces; only the inter-district movement of hired workers is noticed, depending on the conditions of land use and the degree of harvest of a given year. Owner's land is cultivated mainly not only by the efforts of local peasants, but also by their implements. This processing takes place either by renting for money, or performing, or for working off (piecework), or by hiring for work for money. When hiring, the following method is widely practiced, according to the evidence of provincial councils. The poorer of the local peasants come to hire neighboring landowners in the fall, during the collection of taxes, or in winter, in order to get at least some money in a particularly difficult time ahead, in the form of a deposit. Because of the latter, labor is sold not only at a significantly reduced price, but also on more difficult conditions than in ordinary times. In Tambov u. for processing 1 dess., with harvesting and delivery of bread to the threshing floor, with timely hiring, from 8 to 12 rubles are paid; when hired in winter, the same work is estimated at 4 p. 50 rubles - 5 rubles. In Elatomsky district in the summer they pay 5-7 rubles for stubble crops. from tithing; when hired in the fall, they give 3-4 rubles for it, and sometimes 2 rubles. 50 kopecks In difficult times, a peasant in need is often hired from several owners at once and takes the makings of everyone; then, when a difficult time comes, he does not have time to cope with all the work he has recruited, does it somehow or does not come to work at all. Knowing that others work next to him at twice the price - especially during the harvest - he does not consider himself morally bound to the employer and often at the hottest time goes to another owner who has offered a higher wage. Judging by the data of the provincial councils, the employers themselves, especially those who are beginning to understand the need for a transition to a more rational culture that require more careful work, admit that this order of things is unprofitable. Local land-poor peasants hiring at low prices greatly reduce the wages of real rural R. farm laborers. In the central provinces non-black earth before, the need for newcomers was not noticed due to the insignificance of the crops of the owners; but now, with the development in these provinces of a withdrawal to non-agricultural trades, sometimes even necessary for local agriculture, the need for them begins to be felt. According to Yarosl. lips. extra, committee, from many localities of the Yaroslavl province. local able-bodied peasants leave for cities and factories, and their place even in their own farms is taken by new hired workers from Tver, Vologda, and Arkhangelsk provinces. V southern steppe provinces permanent work are carried out by fixed-term R. (farm laborers) and local daily R.; but in a difficult time, as has already been said, many newcomers from the middle provinces come here. Special markets for agricultural wage labor have been formed, among which the mst. Kakhovka and the village. Dzhankoy Tavricheskaya lips. On the first, during the Nikolskaya fair, on May 9, up to 24,000 workers of both sexes accumulate, and in the second, from May 1 to May 15, up to 5,000. The unemployed here disperse to secondary markets (railway stations, bazaars). These markets do not have any organizations; only the (Kherson zemstvo) has established sanitary supervision over newcomers R. Recently, in some southern provinces (Kherson, Tavricheskaya) local peasants who have their own mowing machines and reaping machines or steam threshers have been hired for piecework. After graduating from work at home, these peasants are hired to harvest and thresh grain in large economies or from other peasants. V eastern steppes, beyond the Volga, farm laborers and newcomers R. are rarely used; newcomers R. are hired in most cases by piecework. In the provinces Vistula and Baltic the landlords' households are conducted almost exclusively by farm laborers, with the master's full live and dead implements. V southwest In the provinces, most of the work is carried out by local rural R. In the Volyn province. the practice of hiring lower ranks of troops stationed in a given area for summer work, which is convenient for landowners, but significantly lowers labor prices for R. peasants. In the counties bordering Austria-Hungary, R. from Galicia is found in some economies. Term R. in this area is often carried out in the winter, at sugar factories. Recruitment Methods rural R. are as follows: 1) P. themselves go to the economy and ask for work (mainly in the central chernozem provinces), 2) hiring is done by clerks and managers (south-western province) or so called. economic agents(Kharkiv province), which according to holidays after mass, usually near the church, they hire R. or they travel for this purpose to villages, especially those that are underpaid, and where there are hiring markets, they come to these markets; 3) some of the more prosperous local peasants take in the economy contract he hires other peasants for a certain job and for its execution. This method of hiring began to be observed only very recently (Tambov province). Sometimes the suppliers of rural grouse for the time of threshing grain are the peasants-owners of hired steam threshers (Tavricheskaya province). When hired, passports are taken from workers, sometimes outerwear. Contracts are usually concluded verbally. Relatively wages rural R. has detailed and well-developed material, especially in relation to the day wages. The Department of Agriculture and Rural Industry annually collects through its correspondents and publishes information about the wages of the harness and foot worker (and female worker). Information about the annual and summer fees was collected by the same department and developed by S. A. Korolenk. For piece prices, the department collected and, according to A.F. Fortunatov's opinion, carefully developed under the leadership of A.A. All these data are summarized by the office of the committee of ministers. According to the summary of this last edition, for the years 1882 -91. the highest average annual salary of R. at the master's grub was in the Tauride province. (104 rubles), in the St. Petersburg province. (102 rubles, with the exception of three counties - St. Petersburg, Tsarskoselsky and Peterhof), in Obl. Don troops (90 rubles) and in Kurland province. (90 rubles), and the lowest - in the lips. Volynskaya (80 rubles), Grodno (37 rubles), Kovenskaya (43 rubles) and Podolskaya (44 rubles). With the transfer of food to monetary value, the highest payment falls on the Petersburg province, with the exception of the 3 named districts (102 rubles den.pl. + 65 rubles average cost of food = 167 rubles), then in the province. Tauride (163 rubles), Livonia and Estland (140 rubles); the smallest - to Volynskaya (70 rubles), Podolskaya (77 rubles 50 kopecks) and Grodno (84 rubles). The wages of a worker are highest (at the master's grub) in the Tavricheskaya province. (54 rubles), the smallest - in Grodno, Vilenskaya, Orenburg and Volynskaya (25 1/2); with the transfer of food to a cash payment, the highest payment was in the St. Petersburg province. (115 rubles in 3 named yy. And 125 rubles in the rest). Thus, the highest average over 10 years of plateau-year labor was obtained in the southern steppe zone, where there is a particularly strong demand for hired labor, and then in the Baltic provinces, where the supply of labor is insufficient. Rivals in the western and southwestern regions find themselves in the worst conditions, where, with a dense population, railways and the manufacturing industry are underdeveloped. According to the Department of Agriculture, in Kurland Province. for the satisfaction of the needs of local agriculture remains, for example, only 86,987 people, while in the Kovno province. this remainder is 295327 people, and in the first the factory industry is almost 2 1/2 times more developed than in the second. In addition, according to the testimony of the owners, everyone will gladly pay more for a developed, skillful Kurland laborer (that is, a rural worker in the proper sense, who, moreover, is not made disadvantageous by competition), than for an incapacitated Covenian litvin (semi-proletarian, semi-proprietor) ... The average annual salary payment for the whole of Russia is 61 rubles, while the cost of maintaining a salary is determined on average at 46 rubles. Summer the fee does not fluctuate as much by location as the annual fee. In the western and southwestern regions, such a payment does not differ much from the annual one, that is, winter labor is little appreciated there: the opposite phenomenon is noticed in the lips. southern and Baltic.

Average over 10 years, in 1882-91, daily the fee is as follows:

Daily pay to a pedestrian male worker (in kopecks) for 1882-91:

Daily wages are only lower during spring sowing. In all chernozem provinces, the work of a worker is most highly appreciated during the harvesting of grain, and in all non-chernozem provinces, during haymaking. Above average prices in the Baltic, southern, steppe and northwestern bays .; the smallest boards are distinguished by lips. southwestern, western and northern chernozem. Spring fees are more sustainable than fees during haymaking and harvesting. In some cases, the greatest fluctuations in the daytime wages were observed in the southern steppe bays. (from 1 5 k. to 5 rubles, on own grub). Daily fees of 10-15 kopecks are considered hungry wages and correspond to the cost of cheap food for the worker, as is shown by the difference between wages for work with the worker's own food and with the owner's. This difference on average for the whole of Russia during the spring sowing is 11 k., And during haymaking and grain harvesting, when a lot of labor is expended due to the severity and haste of work, - 13 k. , prevails over hiring with the master's grub. Womens the daily wages on the master's grub represent geographic fluctuations, similar to those in the man's wages. The ratio of female wages to men in non-black earth Russia is higher than in black earth. In general, it rarely exceeds two-thirds of the male pay. Comparison of pedestrian boards with a board harness to workers shows that the latter exceeds the former by approximately the amount of payment for horsepower work. According to the latest published data dpt. land and rural prom., the highest daily wage for a pedestrian male worker during the harvest in the summer of 1898 at their grub was in Novorossiysk provinces: Ekaterinoslavskaya - 1 p. 36 K., Kherson - 1 p. 19 K., Don Region - 1 p. 12 K. and Tavricheskaya - 1 p. 1 K. The smallest fee: in lips. Kazan - 39 rooms, Ufa and Grodno - 41 rooms, Simbirsk and Vilenskaya - 43 rooms, Volynskaya and Vyatskaya - 47 rooms, Minsk - 48 rooms, Penza - 49 rooms; in the rest of the provinces the fee fluctuated between 1 p. and 50 kopecks. Highest average pay for a worker on foot master's grub was in the provinces: Ekaterinoslavskaya - 1 rub. 18 k., Kherson - 1 p., Donskoy - 90 k., Tavricheskaya - 80 k .; the smallest - in the provinces: Kazan - 30 kopecks, Ufa - 33 kopecks, Simbirsk and Vilenskaya - 34 kopecks, Volyn and Vyatka - 35 kopecks, Oryol, Penza and Grodno - 40 kopecks; in other provinces, prices fluctuated between 80 and 40 kopecks. Piecework wages are especially common when applied to grain harvesting, but are also of great importance when hired for processing; it varies widely depending on the conditions of place and time. On average, 6 rubles are paid for the complete processing of one tithe for rye, with sowing. 81 kopecks (5 rubles 81 kopecks in the black-hole province, 8 rubles 4 kopecks in the non-black one). For harvesting oblique spring crops, the cheapest payment is in the Kazan and Ryazan lips. (1 p. 65 k. Per tithe) and above all in Bessarabian (5 p. 50 k.) And Saratov (5 p.); for harvesting winter crops the lowest fee is also in Kazan province, the highest - in Livonia (5 rubles 73 k.). For harvesting spring crops with a sickle, the lowest fee is in Kaluga (2 rubles 50 k.), The highest in Arkhangelsk (6 rubles), for winter crops - the lowest in Mogilev (3 rubles 45 k.), The highest in Tver, Arkhangelsk and Estlyandskaya (6 rubles). ). Information on the prevalence of agricultural machines during the harvest is the following (see ed. Office. Com. Min., Table VIII): the largest percentage of arable land on which machines are used is provided by the Orenburg province. (50%), then Ekaterinoslavskaya (40%), Podolskaya (38%), Tavricheskaya (37.8%), Poltava (17%), Kharkovskaya (16%), Saratovskaya (10%), Kherson (9%); in others it is even lower. These data, however, are only approximate, but relative to some lips. (eg. Obl. V. Donsk.) no data at all.

Attempts legislative regulation relations between R. rural and employers begin soon after the abolition of serfdom. Already in 1863 were published provisional rules for employment in rural work, which introduced the so-called work book, but it remained almost without application. In the 70s. was drafted general position on the hiring of R. in general, including rural ones, but he did not receive the force of law. On June 12, 1886, the "Regulation on hiring for agricultural work" was approved (St. This "Regulation" allows employers and workers to enter into a contract, either verbally or in writing; in the latter case, the penalty for violation of the contract is determined by the Regulations, in the first - by general civil laws (see. Personal hiring). In addition to recovering from the unauthorized worker's remuneration in the amount of 3 months' salary, the employer can demand the return of the worker through the police; in the event of the latter's unwillingness to fulfill this requirement, he is subject to criminal liability (according to Art. 51 2 of the Statute of the imposition of a peace court). Criminal liability is established by the "Regulations" of 1886 and for the employer, but not for violation of an agreement with workers, but for poaching workers from another employer, and an employer who has accepted a worker bound by another agreement may be sued for damages. According to the testimony of the provincial councils, the Regulations of 1886 are applied very little. R., being in most cases illiterate, are afraid to conclude written contracts. Civil penalties against R., according to the owners, "nothing to take", and criminal prosecutions represent only a number of troubles for the employer, and the worker brought in by the police gives work of the lowest quality. Since 1886, the issue of changing the hiring regulations did not leave the queue: it was discussed in different societies, at the All-Russian Agricultural Congress (1896), then in special provincial conferences and in May 1898 it was submitted to the Agricultural Council under the Ministry of Agriculture and Government. ... property. Here, the majority spoke in favor of a general legislative regulation of relations on the hiring of rural workers, but at the same time, an overwhelming majority rejected the introduction of a compulsory work book. Partial introduction of contract books for some types of employment was also not recognized by the council as desirable, since this would not eliminate the possibility of concluding a contract with several employers at the same time. The Council considered it desirable to establish criminal liability for both parties for violation of the agreement and to consider cases on such violations not only by the rural municipality courts, but also by other judicial institutions and, moreover, in an expedited manner. It should be noted that now the nature of relations between employers and workers is somewhat different than in the 70s and 80s. Then, for employers, especially in the southern provinces, there was a strong need for workers and dependence on the latter during the difficult times. Now the south has settled, machines have greatly reduced the demand for labor; meanwhile, the supply of labor not only did not decrease, but increased significantly, and violations of verbal and written contracts workers are made an exception, as the provincial conferences testified to. Such violations usually occur when the indicated method of hiring in advance for negligible wages and, in general, through the fault of the employers themselves, who sometimes poorly feed the worker or delay the payment of wages. V general attitude between the employers and the R. have already assumed such a character that the loss for the worker turns out to be more unprofitable than the observance of even an unfavorable contract for him.

Literature. A. Buchenberger, "Agrarwesen und Agrarpolitik" (I volume, 1892, in A. Wagner's "Lehr- und Handbuch d. P. Oek.", III); A. Ludogovsky, "Fundamentals of agricultural. economy "(1875); Yu. Yanson," Comparative statistics of the population "(1892); N. Kablukov," The question of workers in agriculture "(1884); his," On the conditions of the development of the peasant economy in Russia "(1898) ; Fr. Engels, "Die Lage der arbeitenden Klassen iu England" (1892); Marx, "Capital" (vol. I); T. Kebbel, "The agricultural laborer" (1887); W. Hasbach, "Die englischen Landarbeiter in den letzten hundert lahren "(1894, in Schrift. d. Ver. für Soc. Pol.", LIX); "Royal commission of Labor. The agricultural Labourer "; De Rouzier," R. Trade Unions in England "(1898); F. Reitzenslein u. E. Nasse," Agrarische Zustände in Frankreich u. England "(1884, in" Sehr. D. V. f. Spl. ", XXVII);" Statistique agricole de la France. R ésultats généraux de Fenquête décennale de 1882 "; J. Jaurè s," Socialisme et Paysans "(1897); F. Knapp," Slavery and freedom in rural labor "(appended to the editorship of MI Vodovozova," History labor ", from Conrad" s "Handw ö rterbuch"); O. Heck, "Distribution of the German population by occupation according to the census data of 1882 and 1895." (in the collection of N. Garin "From the economic life of Western Europe", issue I); I. Schmidt, "The economic system of Bavaria according to the data of 1882-92." (ibid.); Th. Goltz, "Die l ändliche Arbeiterklasse u. Der preussisch. Staat" (1893); M. Weber, "Die Verhä ltnisse der Landarbeiter in ostelbischen Deutschland" (1892, in "Schr. D. V. I. Socio l.", LV); Verhandlungen des Vereins f. Socialpolitik über des landliche Arbeiterfrage (1895, Schriften d. V., LVIII); "Berufs- und Gewerbe Zä hlung von 14 Juni 1895. Die Landwirtschaft im Deutsch. Reiche" (1898, "Statistik d. Deutsch. Reiches"; expounded by J. Conrad in his Jahrb. F. N. u. S. ", 1898), K. Frankenstein," Die Arbeiterfrage in den deutschen Landwirtschaft "(1897); Eheberg," Agrarische Zust ä nde in Italien "(1886, in" Sehr. D. V. f. Socp. ", XXIX) ; E. Kreicsi, "Gesetzentwurf üb. die Regelung d. Rechtsverhä ltnisse zwischen den Arbeitgebern u. den landwirtsch. Arbeitern "(in Braun" s "Archiv f. Soc. Gesetzgeb.", XII, vol. I, 1898); P. Fahlberck. Die l ä ndliche Arbeiterfrage in Schweden (1894, Schr. D. V. f. Spl., LIX); D. Zinner, "Prof. Statistics of Switzerland" (in Garin's collection); L. Krzhivitsky, "Capitalization of the agricultural industry" ("Peace of God", 1898, II-X); SA Korolenko, "Freelance Labor on Owner's Farms and the Movement of Workers" (1892, "Agricultural. and extra. information ", ed. Dpt. land. and rural. industry., issue V);" The cost of production of the main grain in Europe. Russia "(1890, same ed., Issue III);" Materials on the cost of cultivating land in Europe. Russia "(1889," Proceedings of the Central Statistical Com. ", Nos. 10 and 12);" The Earnings of Peasants and Emigration to America "(1891," Proceedings of the Warsaw Statistical Com. ", Issue V);" Compare statistics of earnings in rural areas. population and emigration to America "(1892, ibid., issue VIII);" Collection of statistical materials concerning rural. pop. Europe. Russia "(published by the Office of the Committee of Ministers, 1894); H. Blagoveshchensky," Consolidated Statistical. collection of farms. information on Zemsk. courtyard censuses. T. I. Peasant farm"(1893); A. Fortunatov," Agriculture. statistics "(1893); S. Rudnev," Trades of peasants in Europe. Russia "(1894, collection of the Saratov provincial zemstvo);" Collection of conclusions on issues related to the revision of the regulation on employment in rural work on June 12, 1886 "(1898); Employers and workers in agriculture "(" Russian. Economic Review ", 1898, X); N. Karyshev," Labor, its role and conditions of application in production (1897); book N. Shakhovskoy, "Agricultural latrine trades" (1896); I. Gurvich, "The Economic Situation of the Russian Village" (1896); N. Tezyakov, "Agricultural workers in general and newcomers in particular in the Kherson province in sanitary terms" ("Collection of the Kherson land", 1891, 8); M. Uvarov, "Program for the Study of Alien Workers" (ibid.); L. Kirillov, "Holiday trades of the peasants of the Yaroslavl province." (Section I: "Review of the Yaroslavl Gubernia", published by the Yaroslavl Provincial Statistical Committee; issue II, edited by A. Svirshchevsky); I. Reva, "The Kiev peasant and his economy" (1893); M. Tugan-Baranowsky, "Albeiterschutzgesetzgebung in Russland" (1898, in "Conrad" s H andwö rterb. ", 2nd ed.) For many references to articles about rural R. in periodical literature see EM Dement'ev, "Factory" (bibliographic appendix, p. 14). For instructions on the literature on concluding a lease agreement with rural workers, see EI Yakushkin, "Usual Law" (issue II, 486). , Hiring.

During pre-revolutionary Russia and the Soviet period. In the Novgorod dialect they were called "Cossack" and "Cossack", in the southern regions - "hireling" and "hireling". Who are the laborers? What does this concept mean? What is the story of its origin? This will be discussed in the article.

The meaning of the word "farm laborer"

In the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, Efremova gives two definitions to the term:

• he is a hired worker in agriculture;
• hired worker (most often used in colloquial speech).

In the Ozhegov dictionary, a definition is given: this is an employee employed in agriculture of landowners or kulaks.

Ushakov's dictionary defines the expression "who is a farm laborer" - this is an agricultural worker hired by a kulak or landowner for physical labor on the farm.

The meaning of the concept according to Dahl's dictionary: in the village, for the implementation of field work. "Going to farm laborers" means going to work with strangers.

From this term originated the same root words:

• laborer (labor) - which means hard physical labor;
• laborer work is hard hired work;
• to work as a laborer - to be hired;
• farming is an occupation, condition, title of a person.

In the dictionary of Efron and Brockhaus, the concept means among the Tatars - single. So in Ancient Russia, single peasants who did not have their own economy were called, who were forced to work for others for pay or for maintenance. Such people were also called bobs, tepters, kutniks. At present, in the Russian language these terms have been lost and are practically not used, only the name "farm laborer" remains, which is used to denote a person of peasant origin who works for others.

Origin of the concept

There is a version that the word "farm laborer" comes from the Tatar word "single". And indeed, until the 17th century, single peasants who worked for others were called on the territory of Russia.

According to another version, the word "farm laborer" comes from the Turkic word "batyr" - who is engaged in hard physical labor, works for hire from a landowner or a wealthy kulak.

There is another version, according to which the word comes from the Turkic "badrak", this is how the stocky, strong warriors from the guard of the Crimean khans, who came from the Polovtsian tribes and did not have their own land allotments, were called so in the 15th-16th centuries. After the formation of the Crimean Khanate, they became a privileged military class.

In the 19th century, laborers were called people who were forced to go to work and to be hired to work on the farm.

Over time, the concept began to denote a disenfranchised worker and supplanted the word "hire", which was used in the southern part of Russia.

Who is a farm laborer nowadays? Nowadays, the term in its primary meaning is practically not used in Russian speech, it is used only for the name of a person, usually of peasant origin, who works an employee, or engaged in hard physical labor, and which is cheap labor.

Instead of a conclusion

So, who is a person who is a hired worker in the agricultural industry in pre-revolutionary Russia and the USSR, often poor, deprived of land and property? This is a peasant who is engaged in hard physical labor, receiving a salary or working for maintenance.

It might be helpful to read:

• Survivors: what will happen in the new year in the labor market;
• Hotline for non-payment of salaries;
• Analysis of the Russian labor market;
• Labor protection instructions for administrative personnel and specialists (office workers);
• What is charity;
• How to find out about a scheduled inspection of my business;
• Office safety: key points;
• "Hot line" on non-payment of wages to the prosecutor's office will bring;