Labor productivity as a criterion for the efficiency of the use of labor resources. Movement in the costs of living and materialized labor Cost content of the costs of living labor

QUESTION 23

Labor productivity characterizes efficiency, effectiveness of labor costs and is determined by the quantity of products produced per unit of working time, or by labor costs per unit of output or work performed. Distinguish between the productivity of living and the productivity of social (aggregate) labor.

Productivity of living labor determined by the expenditure of working time in each individual production, and productivity of social (aggregate) labor - costs of living and materialized (past) labor. The productivity of social (aggregate) labor in relation to the entire national economy is calculated as the sum of national income per person employed in industries material production.

In enterprises, labor productivity is defined as the cost effectiveness of only human labor and is calculated through indicators of production and labor intensity of products, between which there is an inversely proportional relationship (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. Labor productivity indicators

Output (V)— this the quantity of products produced per unit of working time or per one average employee or worker for a certain period (hour, shift, month, quarter, year). It is calculated as the ratio of the volume of production (OP) to the cost of labor time for the production of this product (T) or to average headcount employees or workers (H):

V \u003d OP / T or V \u003d OP / H.

Note that when defining the level of labor productivity through the indicator of output, the numerator (volume of manufactured products) and the denominator of the formula (labor costs for the production of products or the average number of employees) can be expressed in different units of measurement. In this regard, depending on the denominator used, the formulas distinguish between average hourly, average daily, average monthly, average quarterly and average annual output.

Indicator average daily output product reflects the average volume of output produced by one worker in one day worked:

When calculating daily output days worked by a person do not include all-day downtime and absenteeism. It depends on the average hourly production of products and the degree of use of the duration of the working day:


In days \u003d In hours × P cm,

where P cm is the average actual duration of the working day (shift).

Note that if the costs labor are measured by the average number of workers, then they get an indicator of the average monthly (average quarterly, average annual) output, per one average worker (depending on which period of time the volume of production and the number of workers refer to - month, quarter, year):

Average monthly output depends on the average daily output and on the number of days worked on average by one average worker:

In a month \u003d V d × T f

In a month \u003d In an hour × T f × P cm,

where T f - the average actual duration of the working period, days.

The relationship of this indicator with the previous one is determined by the specific gravity (d) workers in total strength PPP workers:

Indicators average quarterly And average annual output per one average payroll worker (employee) are determined similarly. Note that the volume of production of gross and marketable products can be calculated by the formula:

As for the numerator of the output indicator, then, depending on the choice of the unit of measurement, the volume of output can be expressed in natural, cost and labor units of measurement. Accordingly, there are three methods for determining output: natural (conditionally natural), cost and labor (according to normalized working hours).

natural indicators measurements labor productivity are the most reliable and accurate and more consistent with its essence, but their scope is limited. Natural indicators in determining output are used at enterprises in such industries as gas, coal, oil, electricity, forestry, etc., and conditionally natural indicators are used in the textile, cement industry, metallurgy, production mineral fertilizers etc.

Compared to naturalvalue method definition of output is universal, but it takes into account not only the change in the cost of living labor, but also to a large extent the impact of structural changes in the production program, the material consumption of products, changes in prices, etc. Output in monetary terms at the enterprise, depending on the scope of this indicator can be determined by indicators of gross, marketable, sold and net products.

labor method measurements labor productivity involves the use of labor intensity as a measure of output. In practice, it has a limited scope: at individual workplaces, in teams, at sites and in workshops that produce heterogeneous and unfinished products that cannot be measured either in natural or in value units. In most cases, normalized technological labor input at the beginning of the year is used as a product meter.

The main planned and accounting indicators labor productivity at industrial enterprises are the volume of production in physical or value terms per employee of industrial production personnel (per worked man-day or man-hour) and the labor intensity of a unit of output or work. Labor intensity ( T p ) is the cost of living labor to produce a unit of output. The indicator of labor intensity has a number of advantages over the indicator of production. It establishes a direct relationship between the volume of production and labor costs and is determined by the formula:

T p \u003d T / OP,

where T- the time spent on the production of all products, standard hours or man-hours; OP- the volume of manufactured products in physical terms.

Note that the performance indicator is a direct indicator of labor productivity, since the greater the value of this indicator (ceteris paribus), the higher labor productivity. The indicator of labor intensity is the opposite, because the smaller the value of this indicator, the higher the productivity of labor. There is a relationship between the change in the norm of time (labor intensity) and output. If the rate of time decreases by (C n) percent, then the rate of output increases by (Y c) percent, and vice versa. This dependence is expressed by the following formulas:

Example. The time rate has decreased by 20%, then the production rate will increase by Y in \u003d (100 × 20) / (100 - 20) \u003d 2000/80 \u003d 25%. And vice versa, if the production rate increases by 25%, then the time rate will decrease by C n \u003d (100 × 25) / (100 + 25) \u003d 20%.

Depending on the composition of labor costs, included in the labor intensity of products, and their role in the production process, distinguish technological labor intensity, labor intensity of production maintenance, production labor intensity, the complexity of production management and the total complexity (Fig. 16.4).

Rice. 4. The structure of the total labor intensity of manufacturing products

Technological complexity (T tech) reflects the labor costs of the main production workers-pieceworkers (T xia) and time workers (T povr):

T tech \u003d T sd + T damage,

The indicator of technological labor intensity is the most common, because the rationing of labor in an enterprise (firm) concerns workers to a greater extent, and employees to a lesser extent.

The labor intensity of production maintenance (T service) is a set of costs of auxiliary work shops of the main production (T aux) and all workers of auxiliary workshops and services (repair, energy workshop, etc.) engaged in servicing production (T flash):

T service \u003d T auxiliary + T auxiliary.

Production labor intensity(T pr) includes the labor costs of all workers, both main and auxiliary:

T pr \u003d T tech + T service.

Labor intensity of production management (That) represents the labor costs of employees (managers, specialists and employees themselves) employed both in the main and auxiliary shops (T sl.pr), as well as in general factory services of the enterprise (T word head):

T y \u003d T sl.pr + T sl.

As part of full labor intensity (T full) the labor costs of all categories of industrial and production personnel of the enterprise are reflected:

T full \u003d T tech + T service + T y.

Depending on the nature and purpose of the costs labor each of the indicated indicators of labor intensity can be design, prospective, normative, planned and actual. In planned calculations, the labor intensity of manufacturing a unit of output (type of work, service, part, etc.) and the labor intensity of a commodity output (production program) are distinguished.

Labor intensity of a unit of production(type of work, service), as already noted, is divided into technological, production and full, depending on the labor costs included in the calculations. The labor intensity of a unit of output in physical terms is determined for the entire range of products and services produced at the beginning of the planning period. With a large assortment, the labor intensity is determined by the representative products, to which all the rest are listed, and by the products occupying the largest specific gravity in the total production.

The labor intensity of commodity output ( T tv ) calculated according to the following formula:

where T i- the labor intensity of a unit of production (works, services), standard hours; OP, - the volume of output of the i-th type of product, according to the plan, the corresponding units; P- the number of items (nomenclature) of products (works, services), according to the plan.

T ore intensity of the production program defined in a similar way. Note that if the calculations use the technological (production, full) labor intensity of a unit of output (works, services), then, accordingly, we obtain the technological (production, total) labor intensity of a commodity output (production program).

The indicator of the level of labor productivity, depending on the choice of units of measurement of production, can be calculated by three methods - natural, labor and cost.

If the accounting of manufactured products is carried out in natural units of measurement (pieces, meters, tons, etc.), then the indicator of the level of labor productivity is calculated natural method. In this case, this indicator is expressed by the number of pieces, meters, tons, etc. of products produced per unit of time:

where Q- the volume of production in natural units of measurement.

The advantages of the natural method are the simplicity of calculations, the clarity and objectivity of measuring the level of labor productivity. The main disadvantage of this method is the limited scope of its application. It can only be used in enterprises or industries that produce homogeneous products or keep track of the cost of working time for each type of product. However, the scope of the natural method is somewhat expanded through the use of conditionally natural units of measurement of products.

If the accounting of manufactured products is carried out in standard hours of working time, then the indicator of the level of labor productivity is calculated labor method. In this case, the standard labor intensity is a co-measurement of various types of products or works:

where Q- the volume of production in labor units.

Dignity labor method is that it can be used to measure the productivity of workers performing different kinds works. but this method is also characterized by a limited scope, since labor intensity standards for various enterprises do not match. The labor method is applied at the level of individual production sites, where standards for the cost of working time have been developed and there are usually no prices for products.

If accounting for manufactured products is carried out in monetary terms, then the indicator of the level of labor productivity is calculated cost method. In this case, the volume of production in monetary terms is compared with the cost of living labor:

where Q is the volume of production in monetary terms.

T - labor costs

The main advantage of the cost method is that it can be used to measure the level and dynamics of labor productivity in the production of heterogeneous products. Also, this method provides the possibility of obtaining summary data on industries, territories and the economy as a whole.

In various sectors of the economy, different indicators of labor productivity are used:

  • 1) in industry - the volume of production in physical or value terms per one employee of industrial production personnel, per worked man-day or man-hour; the complexity of a unit of production or work;
  • 2) in agriculture - the production of products in monetary terms per one average annual worker, per one man-day worked; production of agricultural products in physical terms per one man-hour worked; labor costs in man-hours for the production of a unit of output;
  • 3) in construction - the volume of construction and installation works at an estimated cost per one employee of construction and production personnel employed in construction and installation works and in ancillary industries listed on the balance sheet construction organizations, per one man-day or man-hour worked;
  • 4) in trade - turnover per one employee, per one man-day worked.

As you know, work is the most important part modern economy. In the theory of social and labor relations, such economic categories as productive labor, unproductive labor, and the productive power of labor are distinguished.

Productive labor is labor that directly participates in the creation of the natural-material form of social wealth, the total social product, the national income, independent of the socio-economic form of production.

The productive power of labor is a measure of the effectiveness of a person's expedient production activity.

  • the level and dynamics of the productive force of living labor;
  • a high level and increase in the return on the costs of past labor (embodied in the means and objects of labor);
  • the need for higher growth rates of results relative to the costs of living and past labor.

This law includes a causal (direct and inverse) relationship, characterized by minimizing the costs of living and materialized labor and maximizing the results of material production based on the constant improvement of the scientific and technical knowledge of society, increasing the productive power of living labor, and increasing the return on means and objects of labor.

The efficiency (efficiency) of the labor process is nothing but the ratio of the product to the costs of living and materialized labor that gave rise to it.

Overall efficiency social production can be found by adding the efficiency of living labor, the efficiency of functioning means of labor and the efficiency of objects of labor.

  • The efficiency of living labor can be found as the ratio of the total results of the production process to the costs of living labor of workers in material production.
  • The efficiency of functioning means of labor is the ratio of the total results of the production process to the costs of functioning means of labor.
  • Efficiency of objects of labor - as the ratio of the total results of the production process to the costs of functioning objects of labor.

Level of efficiency (performance) , which is expressed in relation to the product to labor costs, tends to a maximum, since the level of abilities of workers must steadily increase, and the conditions of production in the course of scientific, technical, technological and information process constantly improve. Such a definition of the efficiency (effectiveness) of social production emphasizes the labor origin of the effect.

As follows from the content of the law of labor economics, an increase in the efficiency of using the costs of living and materialized labor, an increase in its productive power, a reduction in production costs based on scientific, technological and other achievements lead to an increase in the productivity of social labor, to the efficiency of social (national) production as a whole.

Economic efficiency can act both as a general economic and as a socio-economic efficiency. General economic efficiency is the efficiency of the material and technical side of production. It is characterized by the economy of labor in the production of a certain mass of product with the existing production apparatus and appears here as a function of the objective law of economy of labor time.

Within the framework of the labor process, as the main component of material production, the essence of production efficiency lies in the level of labor productivity. This conclusion follows from internal content labor process. It involves labor, means of labor and objects of labor - the three main factors of production.

The active principle of the whole process is the labor force, whose activity is labor. Actually, labor puts the means of production into action, the process of labor is carried out, subordinated to a specific goal, the creation of a material product (use value). All factors of the labor process are sources of creating a material product, but not individually, but collectively, being realized through labor.

In this way, labor efficiency is measured using the indicator of labor productivity .

Labor productivity - this is an indicator of the effectiveness of the expedient activities of employees, which is measured by the amount of work (products, services) done per unit of time. Labor productivity characterizes the ability of workers to create goods and services with their labor per hour, shift, week, decade, month, quarter, year.

The amount of work done by one worker is called development . The performance indicator can be measured by any work: production selling goods or providing services. Labor productivity is calculated as the ratio of the amount of work per unit of time to the number of employees.

There are three methods for measuring labor productivity : cost, natural and labor.

cost method measurement allows you to compare the performance of workers different professions, qualifications, but the disadvantage of this method is the influence price factor- market conditions and inflation.

natural method measurement of labor productivity is used in the case of the production of homogeneous products. A variation of the natural method is the conditionally natural method, when the amount of work is taken into account in conventional units of homogeneous products.

Conditionally natural method convenient for use, since the production of many diverse goods can be brought into a comparable form with the help of conversion factors. For example, the cost of selling flour, bread and pasta can be expressed through conversion factors into the cost of selling one conventional kilogram of bakery products.

At the core labor method is the measurement of production volumes using the conditional labor intensity of production or sale of products. When measuring labor productivity by the labor method, time standards are used to produce a unit of output or sell a unit of goods.

The advantage of the labor method is the possibility of its application to all types of work and services. But for the wide use of the method, time standards for each type of work which are not always available. This method cannot be used to calculate the productivity of workers on time wages for whom time standards do not apply.

Labor productivity is influenced by the complexity of work. Labor intensity - this is an indicator characterizing the costs of living labor, expressed in working hours spent on the production of products (services). Labor intensity is usually measured in standard hours (actual hours of work spent on the production of a unit of work). This indicator is the inverse of labor productivity and is calculated as the ratio of working time to the amount of output produced.

It should be noted that living and materialized labor is concentrated in any finished product. Thanks to such cumulative labor, material values ​​​​are created.

living labor is the energy cost human body. During physical labor, muscle energy is expended, which is measured in calories; at mental labor energy expended mental activity. Naturally, the costs of living labor have physiological limits. Materialized labor characterizes embodied in objects and means of labor - in machines, mechanisms, equipment, automation - living labor in the past (past labor).

As society develops, living labor embraces an increasing mass of materialized labor. As a result, with an increase in the share of materialized labor in total labor, the share of living labor decreases. This is the main sign of labor productivity growth. .

Improvement of production and scientific and technological progress is the main condition for the growth of labor productivity . The introduction of new technologies and automation means leads to an increase in the mechanization of labor.

Mechanization indicator can be defined as the ratio of the number of workers in mechanized labor to the total average number of workers. Mechanized workers are those who perform their work with the help of machines and mechanisms. An increase in the level of mechanization (automation) of labor indicates an increase in the share of materialized labor and the possibility of increasing labor productivity without increasing the cost of living labor.

An important characteristic living labor is intensity. Labor intensity - this is the degree of intensity of living labor, determined by the costs (physical, mental and nervous energy per unit of time). Scientific organization labor involves the use of normal intensity of labor, in which there is no irreversible negative changes in the life of the worker.

In the concept of "labor productivity" and the calculation of this indicator, there are still many points that have not been fully clarified. With a huge variety of species labor activity it is not always possible to reliably determine this indicator.

So, if we determine the productivity of a doctor who sees ten patients per hour, and another doctor who sees only two patients during the same time, using the above method, we can make an incorrect conclusion about the high productivity of the work of the first doctor. Similarly, you can approach the question of the effectiveness of the work of a hairdresser, a seamstress in an atelier or an artist.

The most reasonable approach to determining labor productivity is achieved if the following requirements are met:

  • accounting for all labor costs this species work;
  • elimination of distortions associated with differences in labor intensity;
  • exclusion of repeated counting (in particular, past labor);
  • the possibility of comparing the rate of change in labor productivity and average wages.

The growth of labor productivity is the main real source of overcoming the negative consequences of both the reform period and the global financial crisis. This the most important factor the irreversibility of the reforms being carried out, and, ultimately, the improvement of the life of the people.

Under labor productivity understand the degree of its fruitfulness. It is measured by the amount of use-values ​​created per unit of time, or by the amount of time spent per unit of labor product.

Distinguish between the productivity of living labor, determined by the cost of working time in a given production for this enterprise, and the productivity of total social labor, measured by the costs of living and materialized (past) labor.

An increase in labor productivity occurs when the share of living labor decreases, and the share of materialized labor increases. This growth takes place in such a way that the total amount of labor embodied in the commodity is reduced. The fact is that the mass of living labor decreases to a greater extent than the mass of materialized labor grows.

The total savings in working time, taken in accordance with costs and production resources, characterizes the efficiency of production.

In enterprises, labor productivity is measured by the indicator of output per worker or per unit of time. In these cases, the indicator takes into account only the savings of living labor. At the same time, labor productivity can be measured as the ratio of the physical volume of national income to the number of workers in material production. The specificity of this indicator is that it directly reflects the savings of human labor and indirectly - through the volume of national income - the savings of social labor. Hence, the most general approach to the definition of labor productivity can be expressed by the formula:

Fri - labor productivity;

P - product in one form or another;

T is the cost of living labor.

Forms of manifestation

The essence of labor productivity can be understood more deeply if we understand the forms of its manifestation.

First of all, labor productivity is shown as reduction of labor costs per unit of use value and shows time savings. Most importantly - absolute reduction in labor costs required to meet a particular social need.

Hence the focus of enterprises on the search for methods of saving labor and material resources, that is, reducing the number of employees in those areas where this is possible, as well as saving raw materials, fuel and energy.

Labor productivity is the same as an increase in the mass of consumer values, generated per unit of time. An important point here is the results of labor, which mean not just an expansion in the volume of goods produced, but also an increase in their quality. Therefore, taking into account such a manifestation of labor productivity in practice implies the widespread use in business planning and commercial promotion of approaches that reflect utility, that is, power, efficiency, reliability, etc.

Labor productivity is also shown in the form changes in the ratio of the costs of living and materialized labor . If in manufacturing process relatively more widely used past work compared to living, the enterprise has a chance to increase labor productivity, and hence increase the wealth of society.

True, options are possible. In one case, with a decrease in the costs of living labor, the costs of materialized labor per unit of output increase both relatively and absolutely (with a decrease in total costs). In the other, the costs of past labor grow only relatively, but their absolute expression falls. Such processes, for example, are observed, respectively, either by replacing manual labor mechanized, or when modernizing obsolete equipment, reconstructing enterprises on the basis of more progressive and efficient means of production.

Growth in labor productivity has a significant impact on increase in the mass and rate of surplus product. The fact is that the excess of the product of labor over the costs of maintaining labor, as well as the formation and accumulation on this basis of a social production and reserve fund - all this has been and remains the basis of any social, political and intellectual progress.

Finally, labor productivity is expressed in the form turnaround time reduction which is directly related to saving time. The latter acts as calendar time. Savings in this case are achieved by reducing production time and circulation time, that is, shortening the construction time and mastering production capacities, promptly introducing scientific and technological achievements into production, accelerating innovative processes and replicating the best experience.

As a result, the enterprise, with the same resources of living and materialized labor, receives higher end results per year, which is tantamount to an increase in labor productivity. Hence, taking into account the time factor becomes extremely important in organization and management, especially in conditions of high dynamism. market economy, constant changes in the course of reforms, increasing and complication of social needs.

Production efficiency

Labor productivity is important indicator in the production efficiency measurement system. At the same time, it is importantly influenced by the magnitude and especially the quality of the capital-labor ratio, that is, the measure of the equipment of labor with fixed capital.

capital-labor ratio, in turn, is measured by the ratio of the value of fixed capital to the cost of living labor (number of employees):

Fv - capital-labor ratio;

Ф - the value of the cost of fixed capital.

This dependence should be taken into account when considering the impact of labor productivity on the overall efficiency of production.

The fact is that not any increase in labor productivity is effective, but only if the saving of living labor pays for the additional costs of increasing its technical equipment, and in the shortest possible time.

return on assets characterizes the efficiency of the use of fixed capital. It is measured by the number of goods produced per given amount of fixed capital:

There is a close relationship between labor productivity, capital productivity and capital-labor ratio, which can be expressed by the formula:

Fri \u003d F0 x Fv.

It follows from this dependence that labor productivity rises, provided that the return on assets and (or) capital-labor ratio increase, and falls in inverse proportion. At the same time, if labor productivity grows faster than its capital-labor ratio, then capital productivity increases. Conversely, the return on assets falls if the dynamics of labor productivity lags behind the growth of capital-labor ratio.

As scientific and technological progress and the improvement of production, the share of social labor costs increases, as the worker is equipped with more and more new means of labor. However, the main trend is that the absolute value of the cost of both living and social labor per unit of output is reduced. This is precisely the essence of raising the productivity of social labor.

Labor productivity level

It is characterized by two indicators. Firstly, output per unit of time. This is a direct, most common and universal indicator of labor productivity. Depending on the units in which the volume of production is measured, certain outputs are distinguished in physical terms, as well as in terms of normalized working hours.

Secondly, labor intensity production, which expresses the cost of working time to create a unit of output. This is an inverse indicator, which is determined per unit of production in physical terms for the entire range of goods and services. It has a number of advantages:

Establishes a direct relationship between production volume and labor costs;

Excludes the impact on the indicator of labor productivity of changes in the volume of supplies for cooperation, organizational structure production;

Allows you to closely link the measurement of productivity with the identification of reserves for its growth;

Compare labor costs for the same products in different departments of the enterprise.

These indicators of production and labor intensity can be represented by the following formulas:

in = -- ;

t = -- ,

in- production output per unit of time;

t- the complexity of manufacturing products;

B - cost volume of manufactured products (rubles);

T is the time spent on the production of a given volume of output.

There are several types of labor intensity.

Technological complexity(t tech) includes all the costs of the main workers. The labor intensity of production maintenance (t obs ) includes the labor costs of auxiliary workers.

Production labor intensity reflects the labor costs of all (main and auxiliary) workers.

Labor intensity management production (t upr ) is made up of the labor costs of engineers, employees, maintenance personnel and security.

Complete labor intensity (t pol ) represents the labor costs of all categories of industrial and production personnel: t pol \u003d t tech + t obs + t control.

Increase reserves

Defining ways to increase labor productivity is an important step analytical work every enterprise. Therefore, in domestic practice, a specific classification of reserves for increasing labor productivity has become widespread.

Raising the technical level of production. Among its main areas are the mechanization and automation of production, the introduction of new technological processes, improving the structural properties of products, improving the quality of raw materials and new structural materials, introducing new energy sources, "learning" production.

Improving the organization of production and labor. It provides for the improvement of the existing and the formation of a new work force, increasing the norms and service areas, reducing the number of workers who do not comply with the norms, preventing staff turnover, simplifying the management structure, mechanizing accounting and computing work; change of the working period; increasing the level of specialization of production.

Changes in external, natural conditions. We are talking about socialization, adaptation to the needs of the modern worker, about achieving ecological balance. At the same time, changes are needed not only in the conditions of extraction of coal, oil, gas, ores, peat, in the content of useful substances, but also Agriculture, transport and other industries.

Structural changes in production. They include share change certain types products, the labor intensity of the production program, the share of purchased semi-finished products and components, the growth in the weight of new products.

Creation and development of the necessary social infrastructure. She is meant to decide financial difficulties, problems of timely remuneration and many other issues aimed at meeting the needs of enterprises, labor collectives and their families.

An increase in labor productivity due to an increase production volumes and changes in the number of employees can be determined by the formula:

∆P = -------- ,

∆B is the share of the increase in output at the enterprise in a given period;

∆Рn is the share of the decrease in the number of employees of the enterprise.

The growth of labor productivity of employees at the enterprise due to increase in the share of cooperative deliveries of products is determined by the formula:

dk1 , dk0 - the share of corporate deliveries and gross output of the enterprise, respectively, in the base and planned periods (in %).

The growth of labor productivity due to the better use of the working time fund is calculated by the formula:

∆P = ------- x 100 ,

Fe1, Fe0 - the effective annual fund of the working time of one worker, respectively, in the base and planned periods (in man-hours).

A separate enterprise, defining required amount the workers to be hired must determine the demand price for labor, that is, the level of wages.

The demand price for any factor of production and labor depends on ultimate performance . It represents the increment in the volume of output caused by the use of an additional unit of labor under fixed other conditions.

The marginal productivity is calculated from marginal product labor, which is understood as the increase in output produced as a result of hiring another additional unit of labor.

Consequently, the management of the enterprise, based on the need to optimize all attracted resources, will use or displace labor, reaching the level of marginal productivity. The fact is that it is difficult to force an enterprise to do otherwise, since the interest of its survival in competitive environment. In such a situation, various options are possible.

Competitiveness strategy

For outsider enterprise market, there are several ways to increase competitiveness:

A radical reorganization by reviewing the basic strategies competition;

Increasing revenue by increasing prices and marketing costs;

Cost reduction and all-round savings;

Reduction of assets;

Combination of various methods.

An enterprise with a weak competitive position has, in essence, three main ways out of this situation.

It will have to increase its competitiveness by working with cheap products or by using new methods of differentiation. An effective method of maintaining and maintaining sales volumes, market share, profitability and a specific position at existing levels. Finally, business reinvestment at a bare minimum is important. Their goal is to make short-term profits and/or maximize short-term cash flow.

An enterprise with a strong competitive position is called upon to continue searching for a free market niche and to focus on making it possible to build up one's own potential. For such enterprises, it is also possible to adapt to a specific group of consumers. Another way is to create the best product. Follow the leader is not excluded. Sometimes the practice of capturing small firms. Finally, the creation of a positive and distinctive image of the enterprise cannot be discounted.

Enterprise competitiveness, which is understood as its ability to participate in the economic competition of commodity producers for the most profitable areas of capital investment, sales markets, sources of raw materials, requires its maintenance, and sometimes even improvement.

To do this, the leader needs at least the continuation of an offensive economic policy, the preservation of current positions, and confrontation with competitors.

In any case, no matter what position an enterprise occupies in the market environment, an important condition for its survival and increase in competitiveness is the growth of labor productivity. It is higher labor productivity that has always provided and continues to provide advantages, and ultimately victory, not only for individual enterprises, their associations, industries, but also for countries.

Living labor and materialized labor

The elements of the production process, according to the nature of their participation in production and depending on their connection with the nature of the manifestation of labor in the production process itself, can be divided into two parts: directly into the living labor of people and into materialized or past labor. The composition of materialized labor includes the means of labor and objects of labor.

Under reified refers to the labor expended earlier, when the means and objects of labor were manufactured, and which are used in production in given time. The division of all labor costs into these two groups makes a certain sense.

Firstly, the costs of living and materialized labor in their totality predetermine the value of the product of labor. A good or service costs, first of all, as much as was spent on their production and the realization of living and materialized labor.

Secondly, the efficiency of production is determined by the combination of the costs of living and materialized labor, which, under given conditions, provide a specific result of production and specific costs for obtaining this result.

Thirdly, as the economy develops, a regular change is observed in the ratios between the costs of living and materialized labor.

Therefore, it is important to know how and to what consequences changes in the relationship between living and materialized labor lead.

Usually there are a number of options for such changes. Let's consider them with an example. Let there be a specific ratio in the costs of living and materialized labor per unit of labor product in this production process - option “a”. The totality of these costs determines the efficiency of the production process.

W - the cost of living labor of workers;

O - the costs of materialized labor in the means and objects of labor.


but) ABOUT F
b) About 1 F 1
in) About 2 F 2
G) About 3 F 3

Let us introduce a new means of labor, the cost of which grows more than technical productivity. At the same time, the means of labor leads to a reduction in the cost of living labor per unit of product, which is greater than the increase in the cost of materialized labor - option "b".

About 1 \u003d 12 rubles; W 1 \u003d 7 p.;

Overall labor costs are reduced, efficiency is growing.

Let the introduced new means of labor be technically more productive, its cost changes by the same amount as the technical productivity - option "c".

About 2 \u003d 10 rubles; F 2 \u003d 7 p.;

The total labor costs are reduced, the efficiency grows more significantly.



Let the introduced new means of labor be technically more productive and its cost is reduced - option “d”.

About 3 \u003d 8 p.; F 3 \u003d 7 p.;

Overall labor costs are reduced and efficiency is increased even more.

What is hidden behind these variants of changes in the costs of living and materialized labor. It turns out that by developing the means of labor and using more advanced ones, we replace the living labor of people with the labor embodied in them and make it more efficient.

Not all options are unconditional. Options "b" and "c" are not unconditional, since they have a limit in increasing efficiency. Option “d” is unconditional, because has no limits in increasing efficiency.

Thus, the essence of changes in the costs of living and materialized labor lies in the fact that the replacement of living labor with materialized labor is a regularity, the observance of which ensures an increase in production efficiency and the economy develops the more successfully, the faster this process of substitution according to option “d” proceeds.

The same applies to materialized labor in the objects of labor.

 

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