Foreign trade and trade policy. International trade. Foreign trade of the country
International trade - This is trade between countries, consisting of the export and import of goods and services. Its volume is calculated by summing the volumes of exports and imports. Export- sale of goods, providing for their export abroad. Import- purchase of goods, providing for its import from abroad. Exports and imports are two key concepts that characterize the international movement of goods, which are used for a comprehensive analysis of foreign trade and for practical purposes. The total amount of exports and imports is foreign trade turnover with foreign countries. The export and import of goods for which payments were made for a given period constitute trade balance. The balance of trade is only part of the balance of payments. Payment balance includes the sum of all monetary payments made by a given country to other countries for a certain period, and the sum of all monetary receipts received by it for the same period from other countries. You can have a passive trade balance, i.e. excess of imports of goods over exports, and at the same time an active balance of payments, i.e. excess of cash receipts from abroad over payments to other countries.
There are a number of indicators characterizing the degree of a country's involvement in foreign economic relations. For example, export quota shows the ratio of the value of exports to the value of GDP. The volume of exports per capita of a given country characterizes the degree of "openness" of the economy. Export potential(export opportunities) is the share of products that a given country can sell on the world market without harming its own economy (minus domestic needs).
It should be noted that the export orientation of production makes it dependent on changes in world prices, fluctuations in supply and demand, and competition in the world market. Such dependence is especially dangerous for countries with narrow specialization an economy whose development is predetermined by export earnings. Import dependence is no less fraught with dangerous consequences. Rising world prices, trade deficit, restrictions on foreign trade supplies in the exporting country - all this can adversely affect the economy, which is overly dependent on imports. Production created with the participation of foreign capital and on the basis of imported technology can lead to dependence on foreign economic centers.
The country's foreign trade is regulated by the state in the course of the implementation of foreign trade policy. When developing and implementing foreign trade policy, two fundamental approaches are used. First, free trade, presupposes freedom of trade, its implementation without restrictions; second, protectionism, substantiates state intervention in international trade in order to promote its growth, taking into account the interests of the national economy. Instability in world trade, world economic crises force countries to use the policy of trade protectionism. Previously, protectionism relied mainly on the tariff and customs system, but after the Second World War, the importance of non-tariff barriers increased sharply, the number of which is constantly growing. The purpose of non-tariff barriers is to generally restrict imports through trade discrimination of individual countries. Non-tariff barriers include the state monopoly of foreign trade, provision of state consumption with only domestically produced goods, complex foreign exchange control over the import of goods, sanitary standards for foodstuffs etc. In recent years, the most widespread type of non-tariff restriction is import quotas, those. quantitative limitation of the volume of foreign products, annually permitted by the state for import into this country. At the same time, the state issues limited quantity import licenses and prohibits unlicensed imports.
To regulate relations between countries in the field of foreign trade, international organizations were created: GATT, UNCTAD and others. GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) Since 1995, the World Trade Organization (WTO) began to function as a successor to the WTO.
43. currency system and exchange rate. Of great importance in world economic relations are currency relations, which are one of the most dynamically developing forms of international economic relations. They arise with the beginning of the functioning of money in the international payment turnover and serve the exchange of the results of the activities of the subjects of the world economy. When national monetary units go beyond national borders, they acquire a new quality - they become currency. Concept currency it is used in several meanings: the monetary unit of a given country (US dollar, Japanese yen, etc.) and one or another of its types (gold, silver, paper); banknotes of foreign states, as well as credit and means of payment, expressed in foreign currency units and used in international settlements - foreign currency; international (regional) monetary unit of account and means of payment (SDR - special drawing rights, euro - the single currency of the EU countries).
Depending on the degree of freedom of exchange of national currency for foreign, freely convertible, partially convertible and closed, non-convertible currencies are distinguished. Freely convertible currency(FCC) is a currency freely and unrestrictedly exchanged for other foreign currencies. SLE has, as a rule, complete external and internal reversibility, i.e. the same exchange regimes for both non-residents and residents. The sphere of exchange of hard currency applies to current operations related to daily foreign economic activity (foreign trade exchange, non-trade payments, foreign tourism), as well as operations on the movement of foreign loans and foreign investments. Hard currency without special permissions can be exchanged for any other currencies, the mode of its functioning practically means the absence of any currency restrictions. Currently, hard currency includes the US dollar, Canadian dollar, national currencies of the EU countries, Switzerland and Japan. FCC is usually used in determining the foreign exchange price. Partially convertible currency(4KB)- the national currency of countries in which currency restrictions are applied for residents and for certain types of exchange transactions. As a rule, 4KB is exchanged only for some foreign currencies and not for all types of international payment transactions. Closed, non-convertible currency- national currency, which functions only within one country and is not exchanged for other foreign currencies. Closed are the currencies of countries that apply various restrictions and prohibitions on the export and import, sale, purchase and exchange of national and foreign currencies, as well as using various measures of currency regulation, including currency ratios in order to restrict settlements in foreign currency. The national currencies of most developing countries are closed.
The price of the monetary unit of the national currency, expressed in monetary units of the currency of another country, is called exchange rate. Its general basis is the purchasing power of the currency, which reflects the average national levels of prices for goods, services, investments. The specific value of the exchange rate also depends on the rate of inflation, the difference in the levels of interest rates, and the state of the balance of payments. There are two polar regimes of the exchange rate: fixed and floating, as well as their various combinations and varieties. Fixed exchange rate- the officially established ratio between national currencies, based on legally determined currency parities. Floating course- exchange rate freely changing under the influence of supply and demand, based on the use of a market mechanism.
The formation of stable relations regarding the purchase and sale of currency and their legal consolidation led to the formation of the currency system. Currency system is a set of monetary relations that have developed on the basis of the internationalization of economic life, the development of the world market and consolidation in international treaties and state legal norms. There are national, international (regional) and world monetary systems. National monetary systems represent a set of economic relations, with the help of which the international payment turnover is carried out, the currency resources necessary for the normal process of social reproduction are formed and used. World and international (regional) monetary systems serve the mutual exchange of the results of the activities of national economies. They are based on the international division of labor, commodity production and foreign trade between countries. The world monetary system has gone through a number of stages in its development. The first established world monetary system was the Parisian system, the characteristic features of which were the adoption of the gold (gold coin) standard and the regime of free floating exchange rates. In 1922, the Genoese monetary system was legalized to replace the Paris one, which was based on the gold exchange standard (in addition to gold, mottos were used - foreign currencies). Gold parities were maintained, and a floating exchange rate regime was in effect. For some time in some countries (USA, Great Britain, France) the gold bullion standard was also used.
The next stage in the development of the world monetary system is associated with the decisions of the International Monetary and Financial Conference in Bretton Woods (USA, 1944), which legally formalized the new Bretton Woods monetary system. Its main principles are: preservation of the functions of world money for gold while simultaneously using national currency units as international payment and reserve currencies, primarily the US dollar, as well as the British pound sterling;
In accordance with the decisions of the Bretton Woods Conference of 1944, two monetary and financial and credit organizations were created in the system UN. International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international monetary and financial organization created to facilitate the development of international trade and currency cooperation by establishing rules for regulating exchange rates and monitoring their observance, a multilateral system of payments and removing currency restrictions, as well as to provide credit resources to its members in case of currency difficulties associated with the imbalance of the balance of payments, and for the implementation of programs to stabilize the economy. The new economic and political conditions required major changes in the instruments, methods and organization of the world monetary system. They were formalized in the decisions of the Kingston (Jamaica, 1976) conference of the countries - participants of the International Monetary Fund. The agreement signed in Kingston in 1976 and entered into force in 1978 meant the legal registration of the fourth world monetary system. The Jamaican monetary system characterizes the current stage in the development of the world monetary system and provides for the complete demo netization of gold and the final transition to the use of national currencies and international settlement monetary units - special drawing rights (SDRs) issued by the IMF as world money. This implies: the abolition of the official gold price and gold parities; ending the exchange of dollars for gold for central banks and government bodies; permitting the sale and purchase of gold at market prices; the right of countries to choose any exchange rate regime; recognition of the system of floating exchange rates instead of their rigid fixation; empowering the IMF to monitor the foreign exchange policies of member countries. -
In Western Europe in 1979 the European monetary system and the European currency unit ECU were created, which became one of the world currencies and entered circulation as world money in the world economy. On January 1, 1999, there was a transition to the single currency of the European Union countries - the euro.
44 . Transitional economy and its features in Russia. Economy in transition by its nature, there is a special state in the evolution of the economy, when it functions precisely during the transition of society from one historical stage to another. A transitional economy characterizes the "intermediate" state of society, a turning point, a time of economic, political and social transformations. The main features of a transitional economy are: instability - changes in development in a transitional economy increase the instability of the existing system so that, as a result, it gradually gives way to another economic system; alternative character development - the results of the development of an economy in transition may be different; the emergence and functioning of special transitional economic forms - they show the "mixing" of the old and the new in the transition period, these forms indicate the direction of the transition and are a sign of its irreversibility; special nature of contradictions in a transitional economy - they are revolutionary in nature, since speech goes about the change of economic systems; historicity transition economy - the processes of change of economic systems proceed with different intensity, the duration of the transition depends on the characteristics of the region ^ a separate country.
The types of economies in transition can vary in scale. When classifying by scale, local and global transition economies are distinguished. Local economy in transition characterizes the transitional state in any region or individual country. It is based on the peculiarity of the development of each economy and the resulting uneven development of different regions and countries. Global transition, economy represents a single process of change in the scale of the entire world economy. Global transient processes are characteristic of the entire history of mankind. Their development is influenced by changes at local levels, as a result of which certain global trends are taking shape. At the same time, global processes are developing under the influence of independent (global) factors, in particular, the deepening of the social division of labor, leading to the internationalization of economic life.
The transition process in Russia is taking place in the special historical conditions of the unfolding global transition processes. Developed industrial countries are in a transition zone from an industrial to a post-industrial society, which means profound qualitative changes in the functioning of the social organism: the role of non-material production is significantly increasing; in contrast to an industrial society, a person comes to the fore in comparison with technical and technological factors; according to some definitions, from the energy era, society is moving to the information era. Countries with significant development of elements of the traditional economy are now rapidly progressing towards modern forms of market economy. Central and Eastern European states, Russia and other republics the former USSR carry out the transition from the administrative-command system to a social market economy.
The peculiarity of the modern transitional economy in Russia is the historical unprecedentedness of the transition, which acts as a transition to a market economy not from a traditional one, but from a special one that existed in a relatively small number of countries with a planned economy. Russia in this sense, as well as after 1917, bi again acting as a pioneer in many respects, must solve problems that are not known until now. All this constitutes the particular difficulties of transient processes. The experience of other former socialist countries, which began the transition a little earlier, cannot be used to the full, both due to a different scale and economy, and due to the shorter duration of this planned theme in them. Uniqueness Russian problems means that you cannot rely on any “simulated models” developed for transients to solve them.
Market reforms in Russia began in a difficult economic environment. The country has begun its transition to the market in conditions of economic and political crisis. Crisis phenomena in the ex-nome began in the second half of 1987 and were marked by a sharp increase in the state budget deficit: Such indicators testified to complete frustration! state finances and the impossibility of normal fu! rationing of the economic system as a whole. The reasons for this were: the well-known anti-alcohol campaign, carried out ti pically by administrative methods and led to a sharp< кращению доходов бюджета; кампания «ускорения» экономиче" кого развития на базе научно-технического прогресса, повлекш; за собой ущерб для потребления населения в результате искусе венного нагнетания инвестиций в машиностроение; резкое сокр щение золотого запаса страны; повышение закупочных цен на сел скохозяйственную продукцию при фиксировании розничных ц< на продовольствие, что привело к росту дотаций, а следовательн к увеличению бюджетного дефицита; резкое увеличение внешн< задолженности страны; распространение хозрасчета на отдельш территории, в результате чего те перестали платить налоги в общ государственную казну; всеобщий переход на бартер и огранич ния на вывоз товаров с отдельных территорий. Кроме того, отрицательно повлияли на экономику страны такие факторы, как падение мировых цен на нефть, чернобыльская катастрофа, землетрясение в Армении, забастовки шахтеров и этнические конфликты.
By the beginning of the 90s. Union political power has largely lost its former strength, which led to a loss of economic control and intensified crisis phenomena in the country's economic life. The situation became even more complicated when, at the end of 1991, the Soviet Union... As a result, the previously existing single national economic complex of the USSR collapsed, economic ties within which were much closer than, for example, within the European market. This factor sharply deepened the economic crisis and led to a new round of decline in production in Russia. By the end of 1991, a critical situation arose when, in essence, the consumer market, there was a threat of financial collapse, non-payments to the state budget. The government could no longer remain idle and wait. It was necessary to decide: either go back to a rigidly centralized administrative system of management, or go for a radical economic reform, forward to the market. The second way was chosen - the transition to the market, but without preparation and gradualness, in leaps and bounds, starting with the liberalization of prices.
On January 2, 1992, the state regulation of 80% of wholesale and 90% of retail consumer prices was canceled. According to the calculations of the government of E. Gaidar, retail prices should have increased by 2-3 times. In fact, they increased during the first quarter of 1992 by more than 6 times, and in comparison with the beginning of 1991 - 13-15 times 2. It was a strong shock to society. The cost of economic reforms in 1992 turned out to be prohibitively high: there was a significant decrease in the living standards of the population, the decline in production intensified, inflation increased, the country's scientific and technological potential began to be actively destroyed, the structure of production deteriorated, its efficiency fell, etc. The government of radical reformers has largely lost public confidence, and the need to adjust the adopted course of reforms was recognized. In December 1992, Prime Minister E. Gaidar was replaced by V. Chernomyrdin. In general, in the period 1992-1996. there was a significant decline in production. Real gross domestic product fell by about 40%, industrial production- by 50% 3.
The current situation in Russia requires an adjustment in the course of reforms in the following directions. First- social reorientation of the entire economic policy. The criterion for improving the level and quality of life of the population should become the main criterion in the selection of options for making all economic and political decisions. Second- creation of conditions for stimulating economic activity and more complete use of the economic potential of the subjects Russian Federation... Tax, budgetary, monetary policy should be pursued based on the needs of each region with maximum mobilization own resources. Third- strengthening control over the monetary sphere! country. It is necessary to restore the full capacity of money and achieve financial equilibrium in the country. Economic, organizational tools, guides cash flows for investment in production. Fourth- putting things in order in the management of state property. Privatization has not created a layer of effective property owners. Monetary privatization has been carried out recently according to individual schemes for transferring the most valuable properties owned by the state to private ownership. There is a danger that the fight against natural monopolies can lead to the same result. The reform cannot be reduced only to the meekness of insolvent enterprises, macroeconomic policy is designed to provide conditions for the normalization of the situation; tions at the level of microeconomics. Fifth- development of a unified strategy for restructuring the economy. Stimulating scientific and technological progress< должно быть стержневым направлением государственной экон мической политики.Sixth- increased attention to the problems of agriculture, as it creates jobs in industry and is the basis of the country's food security.
Seventh- restoration of a single economic space within most of the former Soviet Union. Eighth- the gradual opening of the country to foreign competition, to attract foreign investment capital, the inclusion of the Russian economy in international economic life, its active participation in the world trade and monetary system. The state should play a key role in the recovery of the Russian economy as the most important guarantor of the withdrawal her out of the crisis. It is necessary to create an integral, internally consistent system of legislative acts that ensure state regulation of the economy. In general, Russia has every opportunity to embark on the path of stabilization and economic growth on a new socio-economic basis for it.
The traditional and most developed form of IEE is foreign trade in goods.
The following terms are used to describe trade between countries:
International or world trade- trade between all countries of the world. The sphere of international commodity-money relations, which is the totality of foreign trade of all countries of the world.
Interstate, mutual, bilateral trade- trade between the two countries.
International trade- trade of one country with the rest of the world. Foreign trade consists of two main flows - export and import.
Export- sale of goods, providing for their export from the country.
Import- purchase of goods, providing for their import into the country.
To characterize foreign trade, there are the following indicators.
Foreign trade turnover- characterizes the participation of an individual country in international trade and is calculated as the sum of the value of exports and imports.
Foreign trade balance- characterizes the balance of foreign trade of an individual country and is calculated as the difference between the value of exports and imports. The excess of the volume of exports of goods over the volume of imports provides the country with an active trade balance (positive balance trade balance TB). If the volume of imports is greater than the volume of exports, there is a passive trade balance (negative TB balance).
Terms of trade (terms of trade, terms of sale)- an indicator characterizing the conditions that develop for the foreign trade of a country or a group of countries in the world market, and representing the ratio of export and import price indices:
I Have T = I X / I M× 100%.
Determines the purchasing power of the exports of a country or group of countries, i.e. the amount of goods that can be imported for the export earnings they receive. An increase in the terms of trade index indicates an improvement in the situation for the country in the world market, and, conversely, its decrease indicates a deterioration.
A quantitative indicator of international or world trade is volume of world (international) trade- characterizes the total volume of international trade of all countries of the world. Calculated as the volume of world exports (since one country's exports are the imports of another, adding up world exports and imports would result in a double count).
Foreign trade policy - component foreign economic policy aimed at the development and regulation of trade relations with other countries of the world and their groupings in order to strengthen the position of the country and its business in the world economic arena.
Autarky- economic isolation of the country from other countries, the creation of a closed economy within a separate state.
In its pure form, autarky manifested itself in a subsistence economy.
In the second half of the XX century. liberalization of the economy began to intensify, independence from the influence of the state, i.e. the tendency towards the abolition of restrictions on trade and in the movement of factors of production, towards the transition from autarky and protectionism to free trade. Currently, there are two main directions of foreign trade policy: protectionism and free trade (free trade policy).
Protectionism (cover, patronage) - a policy aimed at protecting the domestic market and actively encouraging the entry of national companies into foreign markets.
Protectionism was the first policy that emerged states from the dawn of capitalism began to pursue. Protectionism was intended to contribute to the development of a still nascent and manufacturing industry. Beginning in the second half of the 19th century, Great Britain and France switched to the policy of free trade, while Germany and the United States, where the process of the formation of industrial capitalism was just beginning, adhered to the policy of protectionism. This policy intensified in all industrialized countries during the era of the formation of monopolies, during the First and Second World Wars, and the deep economic crisis of 1929-1933.
In the post-war years, industrialized countries are undergoing a transition to the liberalization of foreign trade.
Liberalization- form of foreign trade (foreign economic) policy, which involves the removal of all kinds of barriers that impede the development of foreign trade and foreign economic relations in general.
The opposite of protectionism is free trade.
Free trade(free trade) – exchange of goods and services between countries, to the maximum extent freed from restrictions in the form of customs duties, quantitative and other non-tariff barriers.
The openness of the economy leads to increased competition in the country and to an increase in the efficiency of the economy (usually in the long term).
Unlike developed countries, many developing countries are pursuing protectionist policies, protecting the newly emerging national industries.
Instruments of state regulation of foreign trade are divided into tariff and non-tariff instruments.
Customs tariff - it is a systematized list of customs duties that are levied on goods upon import, and in some cases, upon export from a given country .
Customs tariff - a collection (set) of rates of customs duties applied to goods transported across the customs border of the country, systematized in accordance with the Commodity Nomenclature of Foreign Economic Activity.
Customs duty - state monetary fees levied by customs authorities on goods, valuables and property transported across the customs border of the country.
Non-tariff restrictions- “any actions other than tariffs that impede the free flow of international trade”, for example, embargo, subsidies, licenses.
International economic relations- economic ties between economic agents different countries.International economic relations take the form of world trade in goods and services, international movement of capital, international migration. work force... Other classifications of forms of international economic relations are also possible due to their diversity and intertwining.
international trade – it is the exchange of goods and services between state-national economies. It exists in two forms : freedom of trade and protectionism.
Protectionism– a form of world trade policy that emerged in the era of mercantilism in Europe, and representing that it is in the interests of each nation to increase its exports to other countries and restrict imports from there. Protectionism- state policy of protecting the domestic market from foreign competition. It is carried out through high rates of customs tariffs (customs duties) on goods imported from abroad, as well as through non-tariff restrictions (non-tariff barriers): contingency, voluntary export restrictions, licensing, etc.
Freedom of trade- the principle of foreign trade policy, which provides for the freedom of entrepreneurs and firms in making and implementing decisions on foreign trade. Freereading (liberalism of international economic relations)- a form of world trade policy, asserting that it is in the interests of both an individual nation and all countries together to allow complete freedom of trade.
The regulation of world economic relations is carried out through the foreign economic policy pursued by the governments of the countries and the international economic policy pursued by international organizations.
World Trade Policy Methods- customs taxation, non-tariff barriers, state incentives (state subsidies) for the export of goods to the world market. Customs tariffs- taxes on the import or export of goods. Non-tariff barriers– a set of direct or indirect restrictions on foreign economic activity. Contingent- the establishment of a certain quota for the export and import of goods or commodity groups, within which foreign trade operations are carried out relatively freely. Licensing- the need for an organization to obtain a permit to carry out foreign economic activity. Dumping - price discrimination in the world market, sale of goods in the markets of other countries at prices below the level acceptable for these countries. Export subsidies- direct subsidies to exporters of goods. Embargo- prohibition by the state power of export (import) into any country or import (export) from any country of goods or currency values.
Exchange rate
Currency Is any national currency. A distinction is made between freely convertible currencies, partially convertible currencies and non-convertible currencies. Freely convertible currency- currency, when making transactions with which there are no legal restrictions on any types of operations. Partially convertible currency- the currency of those countries where there are quantitative restrictions or special permissive procedures for currency exchange for certain types of transactions or for various subjects of foreign exchange transactions. Non-convertible (closed) currency- the national currency of the country, the legislation of which provides for restrictions on almost all types of transactions.
In modern times, in the process of integration at various stages, a collective currency has been formed. Collective currency- currency circulating within certain integration groups or in certain international transactions: SDR, ECU, EURO.
Exchange rates are an important "nerve knot" of the entire system of international economic relations, and the whole complex of internal and external factors(from long-term economic to political and even psychological), determining the development of the economy of a country, affects the dynamics of exchange rates.
Exchange rate- This is the ratio of two monetary units or the price of one monetary unit, expressed in the monetary unit of another country. Distinguish between nominal and real exchange rates. Nominal exchange rate can be exchange and motto. When we determine the number of rubles required to purchase a unit of foreign currency, we are dealing with the exchange rate. In the case of determining the number of units of foreign currency required to acquire one ruble, the motto rate is used. Real exchange rate shows the relative price level. An increase in the real exchange rate means that prices for foreign goods in rubles are higher than prices for similar domestically produced goods. A decline in the real exchange rate means an appreciation of the real exchange rate and leads to a loss of competitiveness of domestic goods.
3. Balance of payments
Payment balance occupies a leading place in the balances of international settlements. In contrast to the settlement balance, the balance of payments includes only actually made receipts and payments, loans and investments.
The most important role in the balance of payments current account. Balance of payments current transactions comprise four items: transactions with goods, services, investment income and wages, current transfers... In Russia, the key role in the current account and in the balance of payments in general belongs to transactions with goods.
Export-import operations with goods make up a significant proportion of the country's balance of payments. Russia primarily exports raw materials and imports finished products.
The next item on the current balance is services. It is customary to refer to the most important types of services: transport services(air, sea, rail, road, pipeline transport), travel (business, personal), other services. Unfortunately, Russia has not yet been able to create the necessary conditions for the development of tourism.
Investment income represent income received by residents from their foreign assets (dividends, interest, rent, etc.). Wage income is related to income that residents receive abroad ( wage, bonuses, etc.).
Income from wages are taken into account only if the resident has been in a foreign country for less than one year. Accordingly, investment and labor costs arise when non-residents receive income from investments, labor compensation in Russia.
Current transfers associated with a gratuitous transfer of money from country to country: to state level(humanitarian aid, aid to countries affected by natural disasters); at the private level (money transfers, gifts, assistance from private non-state foreign funds).
The next important account is capital and financial account. The capital account, unlike current transactions, includes capital transfers. Capital transfers, like current transfers, should be considered at several levels: at the state level (one state partially or completely writes off the debts of another state, donates equipment, etc.); at the private level (one firm partially or completely writes off the debt of a foreign firm, migrants carry out the transportation of property, etc.).
Direct investments associated with long-term investment in an enterprise in order to participate in management, improve its work and generate income on invested capital. Portfolio investments associated with investments in securities... Other investments include all investments that are not included in direct and portfolio investments (various types of loans).
Items such as reserve assets and net errors and omissions are also an important part of the balance of payments. Reserve assets- these are the gold and foreign exchange reserves of the Bank. Pure errors and omissions. This article includes part of the currency that was illegally taken out of the country during the year. Therefore, the increase in the article "errors and omissions" is a negative factor.
Traditionally, the most developed form of international economic relations is trade, which accounts for about 80% of the total volume of international transactions.
international trade – it is a system of international commodity-money relations, developing under the influence of the internationalization of economic life and the intensification of the international division of labor in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution. International trade consists of foreign trade of all countries of the world.
External trade - this is trade of one country with other countries, consisting of import (import) and export (export) of goods and services.
In volume import includes: goods produced abroad and imported into the country for sale or use within the country, or for export to third countries; re-import from abroad of unprocessed domestic goods is called re-import.
Subject export are: goods produced in the country;
· Goods imported into the country and processed there;
· Previously imported goods that have not undergone any processing, the so-called re-export.
The state and dynamics of the country's foreign trade is characterized by a number of indicators, the main of which are:
· Cost and physical volume of external trade;
· Commodity and geographical structure of external trade;
· The level of specialization and industrialization of exports;
· Export and import quota;
· Balance of trade.
The value of exports and imports of goods, as well as the trade balance of the Russian Federation on FOB (free on board) basis, has shown positive dynamics in recent years (Fig. 6.1). The exception is 2009, which is caused primarily by the world economic crisis... According to 2010 data, Russia ranks 13th in the world in terms of exports of goods, 19th in terms of imports, and 4th in terms of trade surplus, leaving behind China, Japan and Germany. Most of the developed economies of the world (USA, Great Britain, Germany, etc.) have a passive balance of trade balances (Table 6.1).
By the commodity structure of exports and imports, one can judge the levels of specialization and industrialization of the country's economy. For example, the dynamics of the structure of Russian exports for the period from 2006 to 2010 illustrates a slight increase in the share of products chemical industry as well as machinery and equipment, which is a positive trend. At the same time, an increase in the share of mineral products,
including fuel and energy products, by 2.5%, testifies to the preservation of the raw material orientation of exports and the Russian economy (see Table 6.1).
Rice. 6.1. Volumes of exports, imports and trade balance of Russia, mln USD
The set of measures of direct influence on the part of the state on the volumes of exported and imported goods and services is called foreign trade policy ... In world practice, there are two fundamentally different types of foreign trade policy:
1) free trade , representing theory and practice of free trade;
2) protectionism - theory and practice of restrictive regulation of foreign trade.
Table 6.1 Commodity structure of Russian exports,% of total
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Export article |
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Foodstuffs and agricultural raw materials, except textiles |
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Mineral products |
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Chemical industry products |
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Raw hides, furs and products from them |
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Wood, pulp and paper products |
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Textiles, textile products, footwear |
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Precious stones and precious metals |
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Metals and metal products |
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Machinery and equipment |
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Other goods |
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The main and most widespread instrument of state regulation of foreign trade is tariff regulation or customs tariff.
customs tariff RF is a set of rates of customs duties applied to goods transported across the customs border of the RF. The procedure for the formation and application of the customs tariff of the Russian Federation is established by the law of the Russian Federation "On customs tariff", which defines the following as the main objectives of the customs tariff of the Russian Federation:
· Rationalization of the commodity structure of the import of goods into the Russian Federation;
· Maintaining a rational ratio of export and import of goods, foreign exchange income and expenses on the territory of the Russian Federation;
· Protection of the Russian economy from the adverse effects of foreign competition;
· Provision of conditions for effective integration of the Russian Federation into the world economy.
The variety of customs duties is huge. Their classification is carried out according to various criteria, depending on which the following are distinguished types of customs duties:
1) by the method of collection they distinguish specific customs duties, charged as a fixed amount per unit of taxation (weight, volume, area) on inexpensive standardized goods, and ad valorem customs duties calculated as a percentage of the value of the goods;
2) by origin are distinguished preferential customs duties, rates for which are below the minimum and often equal to zero, contractual fees, used for the goods of those countries with which the relevant agreements are in force, and general(maximum) duties, applied in relation to the goods of those countries that do not enjoy any advantages due to the absence of special agreements with them.
3) by the nature of the fees themselves, they distinguish anti-dumping customs duties used in relation to goods imported at dumping prices, and compensatory customs duties, designed to compensate for the damage caused by foreign export subsidies provided by exporting countries to their producers. Both duties are in addition to the regular import duties. The use of anti-dumping measures is regulated by the World trade organization(WTO) Agreement on Anti-Dumping Measures (AMS). Antidumping duties are most often applied to protect imports in the United States, European Union (EU) countries, Canada, Australia. Subsidization issues are regulated by the WTO Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCM);
4) according to the object of taxation, customs duties are divided into import duties, as a result of which the domestic price of imported goods rises above the world price, since the value of the import tariff is added to the world price. NS export duties lead to the fact that the price of the exporting country turns out to be lower than the world price, consumption in the domestic market increases, and domestic production decreases, as a result of which the value of exports falls. Transit Duties levied on goods transported in transit through the territory of a given country, are extremely rare and are used as a means of a trade war;
5) by types of bets are distinguished permanent customs duties,v which are not subject to variable rates, and variables customs duties, the rates at which may change in cases established by the state.
The second half of the twentieth century is characterized by a significant decrease in tariff barriers with a simultaneous increase in the number of non-tariff trade restrictions. Such restrictions are used especially actively the developed countries, although they themselves are demonstrative supporters of free trade. Approximately 20% of all goods imported by the EU countries, the USA and Japan are subject to non-tariff restrictions.
TO methods of non-tariff restrictions relate:
· Export and import quotas, that is, the value or quantitative limitation of the volumes of exported and imported goods;
· anti-dumping measures, voluntary export restrictions, licensing and embargoes, collectively forming a group of quantitative restrictions;
· Subsidies and credits for exports;
· Financial restrictions in the form of restrictions on the accumulation of foreign exchange, requirements for prepayment of imports and the use of multiple exchange rates.
Today, only 20% of world trade is carried out under the rules of free trade, 25% - under protectionist measures, 25% - within the framework of transnational corporations (TNCs) and another 25% - the share of compensatory trade.
foreign trade policy state
Introduction
Theoretical aspects of foreign trade and foreign trade policy of the state
2 Methods and directions of state regulation of foreign trade policy
Analysis of the foreign trade policy of the Russian Federation
1 Foreign trade policy of the Russian Federation: development and state of the art
2 Analysis of modern statistics of foreign trade of the Russian Federation
Conclusion
Introduction
The relevance of the work is due to the fact that the foreign trade policy of any state is the most important component of the general economic course of the government, and in a narrower sense - one of the spheres of fiscal activity associated with the regulation of the volume, commodity structure and geographic focus of export and import flows.
Foreign economic activity is one of the main directions of development of many modern states, a source of goods, the production of which is impossible within the country, as well as income from export-import operations. For many countries where, for some reason, there are no production processes, Foreign economic activity is the only way to provide oneself with the necessary goods,
Foreign economic activity is an activity related to the exchange of goods between partners located in different countries.
The object of work is international trade relations between states.
The subject of work is the international trade of states.
The purpose of the work is to study theoretical and practical aspects related to foreign trade and foreign trade policy.
Work tasks:
Expand the essence and basic concepts of foreign trade and foreign trade policy of the state
Study the methods and directions of state regulation of foreign trade policy
Analyze the foreign trade policy of the Russian Federation.
Analyze the modern statistics of foreign trade of the Russian Federation.
The structure of the work includes an introduction, a chapter "Theoretical aspects of foreign trade and foreign trade policy of the state" containing a theoretical part and a chapter "Analysis of the foreign trade policy of the Russian Federation" containing a practical part, a conclusion and a list of references.
The bibliographic list is formed from scientific and educational works of such authors as Agapova T.A., Batyuk A.I., Zadoya A.A., Ivashkovsky S.N., Kukharskaya N.T., Petrunya Yu.E., Semenov K.A. ., Seryogina S.F. In addition, publications of such authors as Anisimov S.A., Koverkova A.P., Kravchenko A.V., Litvinenko A.V. were used. The resources of the electronic encyclopedia "Wikipedia" and the official website of the Federal Customs Service of the Russian Federation were also used.
1. Theoretical aspects of foreign trade and foreign trade policy of the state
1 The essence and main provisions of foreign trade and foreign trade policy of the state
Foreign trade - trade between countries, consisting of the export and import of goods and services. It is carried out mainly through commercial transactions formalized by foreign trade contracts. W.t. the country is regulated by the state.
Export (English export, from Lat. Exporto - I take out, take out), export of goods and services abroad for their sale in the external market.
Import (from Latin importo - to import, bring in, enter) - the import into the country of goods, works, services, the results of intellectual activity, etc. customs territory countries from abroad without obligations for the return export. Foreign trade policy is an integral part of the state's economic policy, which involves influencing foreign trade through economic and administrative levers (taxes, subsidies, direct restrictions on imports and exports, lending, etc.). In the context of foreign trade policy, the state legislatively establishes certain rules for foreign trade, which are subject to both residents (exporters and importers) and related non-resident partners.
Historically, there are two opposite types of foreign trade policy: protectionism and free trade. In their "pure form" they can be conditionally distinguished in pre-capitalist epochs, with a small foreign trade turnover and the development of foreign economic relations. In modern conditions, the foreign trade policy of states is a combination of both opposites, optimized depending on the circumstances.
Varieties of foreign trade policy.
Protectionism is a system of import restrictions, when high customs duties are introduced, the import of certain products is prohibited, other measures are used to prevent the competition of foreign products with local ones. The policy of protectionism encourages the development of domestic production that can replace imported goods.
However, protectionism has a downside. It keeps the prices of products protected by high duties overpriced. The incentives for technological progress are weakened in industries that are protected from foreign competition. The illegal import of goods without customs control is increasing. In addition, the retaliatory measures of the trading partner countries can cause damage to the national economy that exceeds its gain from customs protection measures.
Protectionism (fr. Protectionisme, from lat. Protectio protection, patronage), the economic policy of the state, aimed at supporting the national economy. It is carried out with the help of trade and political barriers that protect the domestic market from the import of foreign goods, reduce their competitiveness in comparison with nationally produced goods. Protectionism is characterized by financial encouragement of the national economy, stimulation of the export of goods. Protectionism is associated with a certain historical structure of the social economy, with the interests of the dominant class in this system, based on the support of the government: "... the question of protectionism and freedom of trade is a question between entrepreneurs (sometimes between entrepreneurs from different countries, sometimes between different fractions of entrepreneurs in a given country)" ...
The nature of protectionism and, accordingly, the means of trade policy (prohibition of imports, duty rates and tariff structure, quantitative restrictions, etc.) changed depending on the general economic policy pursued in a particular era. During the period of the initial accumulation of capital and the emergence of capitalist relations, theorists and practitioners of protectionism became mercantilists, who demanded that the state authorities protect domestic industry from foreign competition. Protectionism was widespread in France (the protectionist tariffs of 1664 and 1667 by Colbert), the Austrian monarchy, many German states, and for the first time in Russia under Peter I. Customs protection played an important role in the development of the manufacturing and factory industries. Under the sign of protectionism (Continental blockade of 1806-14), Napoleonic France waged an economic struggle with Great Britain. The era of pre-monopoly capitalism is characterized by "defensive" protectionism in most Western European countries and the United States, aimed at protecting national industry from the more developed industry of Great Britain, which (since the 1840s) pursued a policy of "free trade" Free trade. The period when capitalism grew into a monopoly stage is characterized by "offensive" protectionism, which protects not weak industries from foreign competition, but the most developed, highly monopolized ones. Its goal is to conquer foreign markets. Obtaining monopoly profits within the country makes it possible to sell goods in foreign markets at low, dumping prices.
Modern protectionism of the developed capitalist states expresses primarily the interests of large national and international monopolies. The seizure, division and redistribution of markets for goods and capital are its main content. It is carried out with the help of a complex system of state-monopoly measures that control and regulate foreign trade. The strengthening of the internationalization of capitalist production and the further development of state-monopoly capitalism lead to the fact that, along with the traditional methods of border regulation, the use of internal economic and administrative levers for protectionist purposes, as well as monetary and financial and monetary funds that restrict the use of foreign goods, is growing. An integral part of modern protectionism is agrarian protectionism (arose during the global agrarian crisis of the late 19th century), which protects the interests of national monopolies.
The development of the processes of capitalist integration led to the emergence of a kind of "collective" protectionism, which is carried out with the help of concerted actions of groups of developed capitalist countries. An example is the foreign trade policy of the Common Market countries of the European Economic Community. A feature of modern protectionism is the adaptation of the trade policy of the capitalist states to the new situation in the world.
The protectionism of developing countries is fundamentally different. Their foreign economic policy is aimed at protecting the emerging sectors of the national economy from expansion by the imperialist powers. This protectionism contributes to the achievement of economic independence of young sovereign states.
The main directions of protectionism:
-Selective protectionism - protection of the domestic market from a specific type of product, or from a specific state;
-Industry protectionism - protection of the industry;
-Collective protectionism - mutual protection of several countries united in a union;
-Latent protectionism - non-customs methods of protectionism.
Freedom of trade is a foreign trade policy in which the customs authorities only register the import or export of goods. They do not levy import and export duties, do not apply any quantitative or other restrictions on foreign trade. This policy is usually pursued by countries with a high efficiency of the national economy. In this case, local entrepreneurs not only withstand foreign competition, but also overcome protectionist customs barriers, expanding the access of their goods to the world market.
Typically, governments strive to maintain flexible foreign trade policies. They selectively use methods of protectionism and preserve elements of free trade, while striving to ensure favorable conditions in economic relations with other countries: agreements are concluded with them containing clauses on mutual obligations in the field of foreign trade policy.
The tariff method is based on the use of customs duties. Customs duty is a mandatory fee levied by state customs authorities when goods are imported into the territory of a given country or exported from this territory, which is an essential condition for such import or export.
Customs duties are set as a fixed rate per unit of goods (for example, 2000 rubles per ton) or as a percentage of the price of the goods. Customs duties can be:
-differential - different rates for the same goods;
-preferential - established for all or some goods of certain countries and not applicable to goods of other countries;
-protective, installed on certain goods in order to impede the penetration of these goods into the domestic market. A type of protective duties are anti-dumping duties, which are applied if the importer sells goods on the foreign market at prices lower than those on the domestic market.
According to the object of taxation, import and export duties are distinguished. First charged on release imported goods to the domestic market, the latter - when goods are released outside the state borders.
The consequence of the introduction of customs duties is twofold. On the one hand, they help to maintain domestic production, create jobs, provide national security... The tariff is always beneficial to manufacturers of domestic goods competing with foreign ones. On the other hand, the introduction of customs duties leads to higher prices and a decrease in imports of goods subject to these duties. The introduction of tariff barriers causes a response from other countries, the volume of world trade is reduced, which leads to a less efficient use of world resources.
Along with the tariff methods for regulating foreign trade, other, non-tariff methods are widely used, which represent the administrative regulation of foreign trade by:
-export-import quotas - the establishment in quantitative or value terms of the maximum volume (quotas) for the import or export of goods;
-the introduction of a state monopoly on trade in certain goods;
-licensing - the requirement to obtain permission from government agencies to import or export goods in a specified amount for a certain period of time;
-voluntary export restrictions - the exporter's commitment to limit or not to expand the volume of exports;
-introduction of technical and sanitary standards;
-taxation of imported products.
-issuance of subsidies - cash payments aimed at supporting national exporters and indirectly discriminating against imports. Subsidies often take the form of loans from state-owned banks at below market interest rates.
Although the positions of protectionism in the modern world are quite stable, trade liberalization based on integration processes involving the creation of customs unions, free trade zones, is the main direction of the development of trade in modern conditions. "... Unimpeded trade promotes a mutually beneficial international division of labor, to a greater extent increases the potentially real national product of all countries and creates an opportunity to improve living standards around the globe," wrote Samuelson.
Thus, the foreign trade policy of the state is the purposeful actions of the state and its bodies to determine the regime for regulating foreign economic activity and optimize the country's participation in the international division of labor. The main goals of foreign trade policy are: changing the degree and way of including a given country in the international division of labor; changes in the volume of exports and imports; changes in the structure of foreign trade; providing the country with the necessary resources (raw materials, energy, etc.); change in the ratio of export and import prices. There are two main directions of foreign trade policy: free trade policy (liberalism or free trade); protectionism.
1.2 Methods and directions of state regulation of foreign trade policy
Consider the main methods of state regulation of foreign trade.
State regulation of foreign economic relations is a set of forms, methods and tools used by state bodies and services to influence economic relations between countries and in accordance with state and national interests, goals and objectives. The regulatory influence of the state is carried out through the adoption of laws and other state acts, government decree and decision.
With regard to international trade as the main subject of regulation, governments use such instruments and methods of influence as customs tariffs, taxes, restrictive conditions, interstate treaties and agreements, measures to stimulate exports and imports.
State regulation of foreign trade is carried out in accordance with international treaties, laws and other regulatory legal acts of the country through:
) customs and tariff regulation;
) non-tariff regulation;
) prohibitions and restrictions on foreign trade in services and intellectual property.
Foreign trade in intellectual property - transfer of exclusive rights to objects of intellectual property or the granting of the right to use objects of intellectual property by a Russian person to a foreign person or by a foreign person to a Russian person;
Foreign trade in services - the provision of services (performance of work), including production, distribution, marketing, delivery of services (works).
) measures of an economic and administrative nature, contributing to the development of foreign trade activities and provided for by laws.
Economic methods regulation.
The methods of an economic nature include various taxes and fees, special types of customs duties, measures of currency regulation, subsidies and others.
Almost all countries apply border taxation of goods. Its goal is, first of all, to create the same tax regime for the same goods of foreign and domestic production. Such measures include the application of excise tax, other equalizing taxes and fees, including license fees, registration fees.
Measures of a currency and financial nature include various restrictions on the spending of foreign currency: multiple exchange rates, taxes on transactions with foreign currency, interest-free collateral. The plurality of exchange rates means the establishment of a differentiated rate of conversion of the national currency into foreign, depending on the type of transaction, partner or product. In a number of developing countries, taxes on transactions with foreign exchange account for 50-60% of the value of imported goods.
To protect its producers, the state not only restricts imports, but also encourages domestic exporters in the form of subsidies. Export subsidies can be in the form of direct subsidies, preferential taxation, preferential loans.
In developed countries, antidumping measures are widely used in the form of levying additional high duties on imported goods.
Dumping is defined as the sale of a product at prices below production costs. International organizations define dumping as the sale of goods at prices below world prices or below domestic prices. The detection of dumping is the reason for the imposition of a punitive anti-dumping duty, which is several times higher than the usual one.
The main disadvantage of price or value methods of regulation is their indirect impact on the national economy. Often foreign exporters agree to pay them by lowering their own profits. When importing goods with low elasticity, economic barriers may not affect the level of imports. This leads to a wider use of methods of administrative regulation of foreign trade.
Administrative methods of regulation.
Of all non-tariff administrative barriers, the quota is the most widespread. A quota is a restriction on the production of products allowed to be imported into or exported from the country, which is valid for a certain period.
In world practice, individual, tariff, global and other types of quotas are used.
Individual quotas assume the distribution of the total number of goods allowed for import by supplying countries. distinguish between a proportional quota, which is determined by the share of each country in imports for the base period, and a bilateral quota provided in exchange for counter trade concessions or political commitments of another country.
Tariff quotas provide for the delivery of a certain amount of goods in the usual way, and for deliveries in excess of this amount, a stricter tariff is set. For example, Japan has established tariff quotas for beef cattle, cheese, corn, malt, primary alcohol.
Global quotas set the size of the total amount of imports of goods for a certain period without distributing it among the supplying countries, which allows for a selective approach to the choice of the supplying country.
Considering the effect of the import quota and the customs tariff, it can be noted that their impact on the welfare of the country is generally identical. However, their main difference is that when the import quota is introduced, the market mechanism is replaced. administrative regulation, while when the tariff is introduced, the market mechanism is only adjusted.
One of the relatively new types of non-tariff measures has become the voluntary self-restraint of exports, practiced by developed countries to curb imports. While this form of trade restriction appears to be voluntary on the surface, it is the result of pressure from the importing country. "Voluntary" self-restraint of exports is carried out, as a rule, under the threat of the application of tough protectionist sanctions, as a result of which the exporting country may lose a large part of the national market.
Let's consider the mechanism of export and import regulation.
Export - export of domestically produced goods from the country, as well as re-export of goods. Domestic goods also include goods of foreign origin imported into the country and subjected to significant processing that changes the main quality or specifications goods.
Import - the importation of goods into the country. Imports include imported goods intended for consumption in the country's national economy, for re-export, and goods purchased for domestic organizations abroad for local consumption. Re-export goods include goods brought into a country and then exported abroad without processing.
In order to regulate import and export operations, including to protect the domestic market and stimulate progressive structural changes in the economy, import and export customs duties are established. Export from and import to is carried out without quantitative restrictions. Quantitative restrictions on exports and imports can be imposed in exceptional cases by the government in order to:
-ensuring the national security of the country;
-fulfillment of international obligations, taking into account the state of the domestic commodity market;
-protection of the domestic market of the country.
Resolutions on the introduction of quantitative restrictions on exports and imports are adopted and officially published no later than three months before the introduction of these restrictions.
Allocation of quotas and issuance of a license when establishing quantitative restrictions are carried out, as a rule, by holding a tender or conducting export and (or) import operations until the total fulfillment of quotas.
Prohibitions and restrictions on the export and (or) import of goods (works, services) can be established based on national interests, including:
-observance of public morality and law and order;
-protection of human life and health, protection of flora and fauna and environment generally;
-preservation of the cultural heritage of peoples;
-protection of cultural property from illegal import, export and transfer of property rights to them;
-the need to prevent the exhaustion of irreplaceable natural resources if measures related to this are carried out simultaneously with restrictions on the corresponding domestic production and consumption;
-ensuring national security;
-protection of external financial situation and maintaining a balance of payments;
-fulfillment of international obligations.
Goods imported into the territory must comply with technical, pharmacological, sanitary, veterinary, phytosanitary and environmental standards and requirements established in the country.
A state monopoly is established for certain types of goods for export and (or) import. Lists of such goods are determined by the laws of the country.
State monopoly on exports and (or) imports certain types goods is carried out on the basis of licensing activities for the export and (or) import of goods. Licenses are issued by the executive authority exclusively to unitary enterprises, which are obliged to conclude transactions for the export and (or) import of goods based on the principles of non-discrimination and fair commercial practice.
A unitary enterprise is commercial organization, not endowed with ownership of the property assigned to it.
Special regimes for the implementation of certain types of foreign trade activities are border trade and a free economic zone.
Cross-border trade is carried out between persons of a given country who have a permanent location (place of residence) in the border territory of this country, and by foreigners having a permanent location (place of residence) in the relevant border area, defined in international treaties with certain states, solely to meet local needs in relation to goods produced within the existing border area, as well as goods intended for consumption within the existing border area ...
Consider the issue of promoting the development of foreign trade and its stimulation.
Effectiveness of the state regulation of foreign trade is largely ensured through the development of a sound foreign economic strategy with full consideration of the interests and capabilities of the country at certain stages of its development and in the future.
The country's active participation in the creation and development of a new international economic order should be proclaimed as the main goal of foreign economic policy. We are talking about the development of international rules that contribute to the globalization of business activity and the erosion of economic boundaries; the formation of new norms for the movement of capital and foreign investments, technologies; protection of intellectual property rights; harmonization of standards. Great importance is attached to such issues as strengthening the coordination of macroeconomic and monetary and financial policies of developed countries, strengthening the international economic system, resolving foreign trade imbalances, and supporting developing economies.
The economic levers of foreign economic activity regulation play an important role.
The development of foreign economic activity is facilitated by a developed system of state insurance of trade and investment.
The state also acts as the organizer of the system of servicing foreign economic relations and finances this activity from budgetary funds. This system is ramified, covering such areas of activity as the collection and analysis of marketing information, the provision of information and consulting services, the organization of advertising and exhibition work. It contributes to increasing the efficiency of foreign economic activity, attracting new participants to it.
An important direction state participation in foreign economic activity is information support commercial work, collection and analysis of foreign commercial information.
The effectiveness of the foreign economic complex largely depends on the strength of the institutional foundations of foreign economic activity. In the system of government bodies, this sphere can be divided into administrative, coordination and consultative ones.
Among the state administrative bodies, the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Industry (MVTP) occupies a special place, which develops and coordinates the country's industrial and foreign trade policy. The MVTP ensures the development of trade relations with foreign countries, resolves foreign exchange issues related to foreign trade, promotes the production of export goods, sets quotas for the import of licensed goods, issues import permits, and determines the appropriate trade rules.
This ministry plays a key role in planning and restructuring the economy towards the priority development of the domestic market, high-tech and non-manufacturing industries, increasing exports while increasing foreign investment, expanding production abroad, creating a competitive information-intensive economy, reducing foreign trade imbalances and reducing dependence on imports of raw materials. goods and energy resources.
Assistance in the development of foreign trade policy is as follows:
-strengthening of state participation in the definition and implementation of goals, priorities, main directions of structural policy, its close linkage with foreign economic regulation;
-strengthening the legislative and regulatory framework of state regulation of foreign economic activity;
-strengthening the institutional foundations of state regulation of foreign economic activity. In particular, it would be justified to create, instead of numerous and often overlapping government and interdepartmental commissions on various issues of foreign economic activity, one government commission or council for foreign economic relations headed by the prime minister or first deputy prime minister. The task of this body is to coordinate the activities of all Russian ministries and departments dealing with certain areas of foreign economic activity;
-the formation of a nationwide system of information support for foreign trade activities, financed from the state budget (possibly with the involvement of resources of entrepreneurial structures) and managed by a special authorized body. Necessary condition effective functioning of such a system - the creation of a wide network of information and advisory services;
-development and practical use of export credit mechanisms, provision of government guarantees, trade and investment insurance against commercial and political risks.
Thus, the consistency and consistency of the implementation of trade and economic policy is largely ensured through close interdepartmental coordination of government bodies.
2. Analysis of the foreign trade policy of the Russian Federation
2.1 Foreign trade policy of the Russian Federation: development and current state
As you know, for many decades, the monopoly of foreign economic activity prevailed in our country, that is, the exclusive right of the state to carry out all types of foreign economic relations. The state exercised its monopoly through specially created bodies. Foreign trade was carried out through the Ministry of Foreign Trade (later - the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations) and its sectoral export-import associations; international settlements - through the USSR Vnesheconombank.
The gradual reform of foreign economic activity began in 1986. The rights of state foreign trade organizations were expanded, along with them, sectoral, republican and regional organizations... From the end of the 80s, manufacturers of export products began to obtain the right to directly enter the foreign market.
The rejection of the state monopoly of foreign trade allowed all subjects of the Russian economy to freely enter world markets. Initially, this required the registration of an enterprise as a participant in foreign economic activity in the bodies of the Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations at the local level (in the region, territory, autonomous republic). At present, any enterprise can freely participate in foreign trade operations.
However, the abandonment of the state monopoly of foreign trade created serious problems. The uncontrolled export of strategically important commodities has expanded. There was a wave of imported goods, often of poor quality. There was a problem with a currency leak.
In these conditions, it was necessary to form new economic and administrative structures to regulate foreign trade. Develop and implement into practice effective methods foreign trade policy.
In 1993, Russia adopted the Law "On Customs Tariff" and "Customs Code". The Law on the Customs Tariff establishes the procedure for determining the customs value of goods imported into Russia. There are 5 methods for determining the customs value of an imported product:
) valuation at the price of a transaction with imported goods (main method);
) at the price of a transaction with identical goods;
) at the price of a transaction with similar goods;
) based on cost deduction (based on the unit price of a product sold in Russia);
) based on cost addition (an estimate of the costs of a Russian exporter of goods of the same type). There may be times when these 5 methods cannot be used. Then the customs authorities estimate the cost taking into account the world customs practice. In addition to determining the customs value of goods, an important section of the Law on Customs Tariffs is the procedure for determining the country of origin of goods. And also indicated the possible tariff benefits and the procedure for their provision.
Basic rates of import duties are applied to goods from countries or their unions enjoying the most favored nation in trade (MFN) regime in Russia. More than 120 countries and European Union... For goods originating from countries and their unions that do not use MFN in trade with Russia, doubled base import duty machines are applied.
A special regime of customs duties applies to goods from developing countries. For these countries, base rates are applied, reduced by 2 times. Such countries include China and India, Russia's major trade partners. Goods from the least developed countries (their list includes 47 countries) are not subject to customs duties at all.
In addition to tariff methods, Russia applies quotas and licensing procedures for the export and import of certain goods. Non-tariff methods apply to all countries, including the CIS countries.
The most important step towards the formation of a civilized foreign trade policy is the adoption in October 1995 of the Law of the Russian Federation "On the regulation of foreign trade activities." It is the legal basis for Russia's foreign trade policy. The goals of this law are proclaimed to protect the economic sovereignty of Russia, stimulate economic development, and ensure effective integration of Russia into the world economy. The law also defines the basic principles of state regulation of Russia's foreign trade activities. It should be noted that one of the principles is the priority of economic measures of state regulation of foreign trade. The foreign trade policy of Russia is carried out by customs-tariff and non-tariff methods. Other methods of state regulation of foreign trade activities are not allowed. The Law also defines active measures to promote the development of foreign trade activities. In order to stimulate economic growth, the Government of the Russian Federation and the executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation contribute to the development of foreign trade. Including through the implementation of federal and regional programs for the development of foreign trade.
The role of the foreign economic complex in the country's economy in 1993-1997. constantly increased.
The growth in foreign trade, and above all in exports, was one of the most important factors in slowing down the decline in GDP.
Russia's foreign trade turnover (excluding unorganized trade) increased from $ 95.2 billion in 1993. up to 126.6 billion dollars in 1997, or by 33%, including turnover with non-CIS countries increased over this period by 39% - up to 98.8 billion dollars, with neighboring countries (CIS) - by 15 % and amounted to $ 27.8 billion.
Trade surplus compared to 1993 grew by more than 43% and reached 33.2 billion dollars, and almost entirely at the expense of non-CIS countries.
In the foreign trade turnover of Russia in 1997. non-CIS countries accounted for 75%, in 1997. - 78%, for the CIS countries - 25% and 22%, respectively.
Russian exports grew over this period from $ 59.2 billion to $ 79.9 billion, or by 35%, while to non-CIS countries it increased from $ 44.3 billion to $ 65.7 billion (+48 , 2%), in the near - decreased from 14.9 billion dollars to 14.2 billion dollars (-4.3%). As a result, the share of non-CIS countries in the total volume of Russian exports increased from 74.9% in 1993. to 82.2% in 1997, and the CIS countries - decreased from 25.1% to 17.8%.
An analysis of the geography of export supplies indicates that Russian participants in foreign economic activity are mainly oriented towards industrialized countries. In recent years, there have been no significant changes in the geographical distribution of exports across the non-CIS regions. The commodity structure of exports continued to be of a raw material orientation with a predominance of energy resources. At the same time, the share of unprocessed raw materials in this period slightly decreased due to the outstripping growth in exports of metal products, fertilizers, oil products, organic and inorganic chemicals, paper, etc. The share of energy exports to non-CIS countries decreased over this period from 46 to 41%.
The growth in exports to non-CIS countries was due not only to an increase in its physical volume, but also to a significant extent to an increase in world prices for fuel and raw materials. As a result of these two factors, the export of oil increased by 24%, ammonia - 1.7 times, mineral fertilizers - 2.2 times, rubber - 2.6 times, cellulose and paper - 4.3%, aluminum and ferroalloys - 1.8-3.0 times.
1993-1997. there were certain changes in the geography of Russian imports. The share of non-CIS countries decreased from 73.3 to 71%, while the share of CIS countries increased from 25.7% to 29%. There was also a redistribution of import volumes between non-CIS countries.
One of the priority tasks of economic transformations in Russia was the liberalization of foreign trade, which was designed to promote equal integration. Russian economy v world economy... This, in turn, assumed the formation of a mechanism of state regulation of foreign trade flows based on market principles, the removal of unjustified restrictions in this area.
At the moment, the organization of foreign trade in Russia is based on two basic laws: the Federal Law "On State Regulation of Foreign Trade", which "defines the basis for state regulation of foreign trade, the procedure for its implementation by Russian and foreign persons, the rights, obligations and responsibilities of state authorities of the Russian Federation. Federation and state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation in the field of foreign trade "and the Federal Law" On the customs tariff ", which establishes the procedure for the formation and application of the customs tariff of the Russian Federation - an instrument of trade policy and state regulation of the internal market of goods of the Russian Federation in its relationship with the world market , as well as the rules for imposing duties on goods when they are moved across the customs border of the Russian Federation.
The main objectives of the customs tariff are:
rationalization of the commodity structure of the import of goods into the Russian Federation;
maintaining a rational ratio of export and import of goods, foreign exchange income and expenses on the territory of the Russian Federation;
creation of conditions for progressive changes in the structure of production and consumption of goods in the Russian Federation;
protection of the economy of the Russian Federation from the adverse effects of foreign competition;
provision of conditions for effective integration of the Russian Federation into the world economy.
At the present stage, the foreign trade policy of the Russian Federation is characterized by three main directions:
1.Focus on raw materials exports, on which the Russian economy is based.
2.The policy of protectionism in relation to some groups of goods.
.The dependence of the consumer sector on imports.
The first feature of the modern foreign trade policy of the Russian Federation is the complete dependence of the Russian economy on oil and gas raw materials exports. It should be noted that the crisis phenomena of the end of 2008 and the beginning of 2009 are associated not with a fall in the market for US mortgage bonds and US government bonds, not with a fall in the stock exchange (in Russia, there is still a rather undeveloped structure) and the financial sector - but an exceptionally sharp decline in prices for 1 barrel of oil from over $ 80 to below $ 40. The same situation is with other types of energy resources (primarily - natural gas) and other types of raw materials (for example, the stagnation in the metallurgical industry was associated mainly with the fall in prices for raw materials in the external market).
As for the second feature of foreign trade policy, it is associated with an attempt to protect a domestic manufacturer who is not able to compete in quality with Western manufacturers, not by improving the quality of products, but by artificially inflating prices for goods from Western manufacturers (a vivid example of protectionism of this kind is the domestic car fleet).
The third feature of modern foreign trade policy is a constant increase in imports of consumer goods and food products, due to the underdevelopment of light and Food Industry RF. This trend, being a legacy of the underdeveloped economy of the USSR and its hostility towards the needs of ordinary citizens, has noticeably smoothed out compared to the situation in the late nineties and early two thousandths. However, the preservation of the export and raw material dependence of the Russian economy (which is also a legacy of the USSR since the reign of Brezhnev) and the sluggish stimulation of the consumer-oriented manufacturing sector leads to the preservation of this pernicious feature of the Russian economy at the turn of the second decade of the new millennium.
Thus, the goals of state regulation of foreign trade are determined by the general economic situation in the country, the severity of existing socio-economic problems. In this regard, foreign trade policy can be aimed at increasing state budget revenues, promoting industrial restructuring, and protecting certain industries from import competition. The methods of Russia's foreign trade policy take into account international practice and the specifics of the socio-economic situation within the country. The arsenal of methods of foreign trade policy includes both tariff and non-tariff methods.
2.2 Analysis of modern statistics of foreign trade of the Russian Federation
Let us analyze the foreign trade of the Russian Federation using the data of the official website of the Federal Customs Service of the Russian Federation (www.customs.ru).
Table 1 presents data on foreign trade of the Russian Federation with the CIS countries for January-August 2010 (compiled as of 03.12.2010).
Table 1 - Data on foreign trade of the Russian Federation for January-September 2010 (million US dollars)
DirectionTurnover of export 117955,818185,38,2 GREECE2565,82252,9312,90,6DESALES2533,113191214,10,6 IRELAND829,5112,3717,30,2 SPAIN4942,42908,12034,31,1 ITALY2683120149,86681,26,1 KYPRUS1362,51340,322,20, 3LATVIA4926.44456.54701.1LITHUANIA2983.62349.66340.7LUXEMBURG91.32.588.80MALTA952.7944.18.60.2NIDERLANDS42090.439100.82989.69.6POLAND14895.610910.93984.73.4 31475,6938,80,5 SLOVAKIA5111,13349,41761,81,2 SLOVENIA820,482,8737,60,2 UNITED KINGDOM 11163,781223041,82,5 FINLAND11383,38257,53125,82,6 FRANCE15880,49023,66856,83,69 , 13967,92000,21,4 SWEDEN4639,62751,71887,91,1 ESTONIA1458,81110,1348,70,3ATES102543,848691,753852,123,3AUSTRALIA569,239,7529,50,1 VIETNAM1577,2803,8773,50,4HONG KONG692,5648 , 344,10,2 INDONESIA 1453,9779,3674,60,3 CANADA1667,3700,7 966,60,4 CHINA41764,414512,4272529,5 KOREA, REP. 12629,47640,94988,52,9 MALAYSIA 1146,3280,8865,40,3 MEXICO487,8202,6285,20,1 NEW ZEALAND184,777,71070PAPUA-NEW GUINEA5,10,114 , 1167,846,30 SINGAPORE1947,21705,9241,30,4 USA16617,99048,87569,23,8THAILAND2141,61190,4951,30,5THAIWAN (CHINA) 2,416,91357,61059,30,5PHILIPINES638,6429209,60,1CHILI275,521 , 4254,10,1 JAPAN16114,59084,87029,73,7SNG6065938888,221770,713,8EVRAZES31464,320189,611274,77,1AZERBAIJAN1189,8974,8215,10,3ARMENIA601501,399,70,1BELARUS20,17018,8124,000 , 35263,82662,51,8 KYRGYZIA989,4693,4295,90,2 MOLDOVA, REP. 1013,6747,3266,20,2 TAJIKISTAN 636,7485151,70,1 TURKMENISTAN644,3556,2880,1UZBEKISTAN2473,11327,21145,90,6467807998 , 9129,6651,30,2 BRAZIL4370,61275,43095,21 VIRGIN ISLAND, BRIT. 73,871,32,50 EHYPET1934,11711,4222,80,4 ISRAEL1968,31392,35760,4 INDIA6126,94619,21507,71,4 IRAN, ISLAM. REP. 2442,12271,4170,70,6CUBA227,2176,450,80,1MONGOLIA734,768252,70,2NORVEGIA1496,7509,2987,50,3TU RUSSIA 17875,214626,43248,84,1 SWITZERLAND7923,36309,21614,11,8 SOUTH AFRICA 386,636,9349,70,1 GEORGIA (outside the CIS) 187,9155,632,30 Other countries12895,28835,44059,82,9
Let's illustrate the data in the table through the diagram shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 - Data on foreign trade of the Russian Federation for January-September 2010 (million US dollars)
As can be seen from Table 1 and Figure 1, in absolute terms, the turnover of foreign trade for January-September 2010 is more than 50% of the turnover of trade with the European Union (turnover of 162018.8 million US dollars), while exports are more than twice import. The second largest foreign trade is trade with the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, lagging by almost 100,000 million US dollars from the EU with a turnover of 162018.8 million US dollars. At the same time, most of the foreign trade with APEC falls on China (more than 40.7% of the foreign trade turnover with APEC). In the world foreign trade turnover of the Russian Federation, the foreign trade turnover with the CIS countries is only 13.8%, while, as can be seen from Table 1, the share of the EurAsEC countries is more than 51.4% (which is a consequence of the focus of this geopolitical entity on eliminating customs barriers and an increase in foreign trade). The largest share of the foreign trade of the Russian Federation with the CIS countries falls on Ukraine and Belarus (in January-September 2010, the share of Ukraine in the turnover of foreign trade of Russia with the CIS countries was 42%, and Belarus, respectively, 31.8%).
Let us compare the data in Table 1 and Figure 1 with the values of 2009 for the same period (Figure 2).
Figure 2 - Data on foreign trade of the Russian Federation for January-September 2009 (million US dollars)
As you can see, the general structure of foreign trade directions of the Russian Federation in 2010 does not differ from the distribution of foreign trade volumes in 2009. As can be seen from Table 1 and Figure 1, in 2009 (as in 2010), more than 50% of foreign trade turnover is made up of trade with the European Union (turnover of 162018.8 million US dollars), while exports are more than twice import. The second largest foreign trade is trade with the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, lagging by almost 100,000 million US dollars from the EU with a turnover of 162018.8 million US dollars. At the same time, most of the foreign trade with the CIS takes place in the turnover of foreign trade, and a very insignificant place, accounting for 14.6%, 9% of which falls on the countries of the Eurasian Economic Community.
Let us consider the structure of the turnover in foreign trade of the Russian Federation presented in Figure 3.
Figure 3 - Structure of foreign trade turnover of the Russian Federation for January-September 2010 (in percent)
As can be seen from Figure 3, in the total foreign trade turnover of the Russian Federation, 49.5% of the turnover falls on the European Union, 23.3% falls on the APEC countries and 13.8% on the CIS countries. Consequently, the bulk of the foreign trade of the Russian Federation is carried out with the countries of the European Union.
Let us consider in more detail the structure of the foreign trade of the Russian Federation with the socialist countries of the EU members (Figure 4).
Figure 4 - Structure of foreign trade turnover of the Russian Federation with EU member states for January-September 2010 (in percent)
As can be seen from Figure 4, among the EU countries, the largest share of foreign trade turnover falls on the Netherlands (19.3% of the RF foreign trade turnover with the EU), Germany (16.5% of the RF foreign trade turnover with the EU) and Italy (12.3 % of the turnover of foreign trade between the Russian Federation and the EU).
Consider the growth rate of the RF foreign trade turnover (table 2).
Table 1 - Growth rates of foreign trade of the Russian Federation in January-September 2010 (million US dollars)
Direction TURNOVEREXPORTIMPORT Whole World137,1137,1137 EU134.5138.1126.6 AUSTRIA94.263.8117.3 BELGIUM142.5151.8129.5 BULGARIA151.5155.2130.2 HUNGARY133.1137.5126.7 GERMANY134.3144.9163125.3 , 3169.9127.9 DENMARK114.399.5136.2 IRELAND132.484.4145.3 SPAIN134.7137.7130.5 ITALY117.4115.3124.4 CYPRUS252.1257.9107 LATVIA146143.9169.9 LITHUANIA103.7104.4101, 3 LUXEMBOURG95,298,195.2 MALTA297,1298,1215.8 NETHERLANDS 152.7156.2118.4 POLAND133.2131.3138.6 PORTUGAL156.3183.4142.4 ROMANIA148.2142.5158.2 SLOVAKIA150.3166.9150.5 WORDS 2187146.9 UNITED KINGDOM122.4120.8127 FINLAND123.8128.5113 FRANCE137.4146127.4 CZECH REP. 126.6127.5125.1 SWEDEN133.2131.9135.2 ESTONIA143.4150.1125.5 ATES154.3158 9 AUSTRALIA124.7136.8123.9 VIETNAM136.1121.7155.2 HONG KONG178.2178.5174.4 INDONESIA217.7380.3145.7 CANADA128.2159.1112.4 CHINA156.4126.1179.4 KOREA, REP 178.9204 8150 MALAYSIA9872111 MEXICO117.988.3154.7 NEW ZEALAND186.42239.6111.9 PAPUA NEW GUINEA105.14.4152.5 PERU162.1149.5233.4 BLUE GAPUR133,1196,740.5 USA132.2144.4120.1 THAILAND244.6503.6148.8 TAIWAN (CHINA) 208.8247.7173.8 PHILIPINES200.6207188.7 CHILE126.7221.8122.3 JAPAN156.2182.9131, 5 CIS 129.2120.9147 EVRAZES109.298137.1 AZERBAIJAN 94.289128.5 ARMENIA 121.8120131.6 BELARUS 117.9105.6148.6 GEORGIA000 KAZAKHSTAN87.280.5104.5 KYRGYZIA106.6107.3105 MOLDOVA , 8 TAJIKISTAN 117.4120.5108.6 TURKMENIA7870283.5 UZBEKISTAN139106.5215.1 UKRAINE174.6183.4162 ARGENTINA88.8159.881.6 BRAZIL140.3242,2119.5 VIRGIN OSTR., BRIT13.139.213 1134.5130.7 ISRAEL157.3178.7121.9 INDIA119.9113.4145.2 IRAN, ISLAM.RESP. 112.5112.4114.7 CUBA 118.9140.277.8 MONGOLIA153.6152.4171.9 NORWAY 107.383, 3125.9 TURKEY131.2127.9148.7 SWITZERLAND 141.8147124.4 SOUTH AFRICA 13462.3152.5 GEORGIA (outside the CIS) 799.4669.412561.4 Other countries125.9123.2132.3
Based on the data in Table 2, we will construct a diagram illustrating the growth rates of foreign trade in different directions (Figure 5).
Figure 5 - Growth rates of foreign trade turnover of the Russian Federation for January-September 2010 (in percent)
As can be seen from Figure 5, the largest growth in foreign trade is observed by the socialist countries of APEC. At the same time, in the world as a whole, the growth rates of imports and exports are approximately equal.
Thus, the above data indicate that in recent years, there has been an increase in foreign trade turnover in Russia, 86.2% of which falls on the non-CIS countries and 13.8% on the CIS countries. The geographic structure of foreign trade turnover is characterized by an increase in trade with Western European countries and a relative reduction in the share of Asian countries. Strengthening the orientation of Russian foreign trade towards Western countries is associated with the possibility of obtaining loans, high technologies, new machinery and equipment.
Conclusion
In this work, the set goal was achieved and the following tasks were solved:
The essence and basic concepts of foreign trade and foreign trade policy of the state are revealed.
Methods and directions of state regulation of foreign trade policy have been studied
The foreign trade policy of the Russian Federation is analyzed.
Analyzed the modern statistics of foreign trade of the Russian Federation.
In the course of the work, the following conclusions were made, corresponding to the tasks:
The foreign trade policy of the state is the purposeful actions of the state and its bodies to determine the regime for regulating foreign economic activity and optimize the country's participation in the international division of labor. The main goals of foreign trade policy are: changing the degree and way of including a given country in the international division of labor; changes in the volume of exports and imports; changes in the structure of foreign trade; providing the country with the necessary resources (raw materials, energy, etc.); change in the ratio of export and import prices. There are two main directions of foreign trade policy: free trade policy (liberalism or free trade); protectionism.
2. State regulation of foreign economic relations is a set of forms, methods and tools used by state bodies and services to influence economic relations between countries and in accordance with state and national interests, goals and objectives. The regulatory influence of the state is carried out through the adoption of laws and other state acts, government decree and decision. Consistency and consistency in the implementation of trade and economic policy is largely ensured through close interdepartmental coordination of government bodies.
3. As you know, for many decades in our country the monopoly of foreign economic activity prevailed, that is, the exclusive right of the state to carry out all types of foreign economic relations. One of the priority tasks of economic transformations in Russia was the liberalization of foreign trade, which was designed to contribute to the equal integration of the Russian economy into the world economy. This, in turn, assumed the formation of a mechanism of state regulation of foreign trade flows based on market principles, the removal of unjustified restrictions in this area. At the present stage, the foreign trade policy of the Russian Federation is characterized by three main directions: an orientation towards raw materials exports, on which the Russian economy is based, a policy of protectionism in relation to certain groups of goods, and the dependence of the consumer sector on imports. The goals of state regulation of foreign trade are determined by the general economic situation in the country, the severity of the existing socio-economic problems. In this regard, foreign trade policy can be aimed at increasing state budget revenues, promoting industrial restructuring, and protecting certain industries from import competition. The methods of Russia's foreign trade policy take into account international practice and the specifics of the socio-economic situation within the country. The arsenal of methods of foreign trade policy includes both tariff and non-tariff methods.
In absolute terms, the turnover of foreign trade for January-September 2010 is more than 50% of the turnover of trade with the European Union (turnover of 162018.8 million US dollars), while exports are more than twice as much as imports. The second largest foreign trade is trade with the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, lagging by almost 100,000 million US dollars from the EU with a turnover of 162018.8 million US dollars. At the same time, most of the foreign trade with APEC falls on China (more than 40.7% of the foreign trade turnover with APEC). In the world foreign trade turnover of the Russian Federation, the foreign trade turnover with the CIS countries is only 13.8%, while, as can be seen from Table 1, the share of the EurAsEC countries is more than 51.4% (which is a consequence of the focus of this geopolitical entity on eliminating customs barriers and an increase in foreign trade). The largest share of the foreign trade of the Russian Federation with the CIS countries falls on Ukraine and Belarus (in January-September 2010, the share of Ukraine in the turnover of foreign trade of Russia with the CIS countries was 42%, and Belarus, respectively, 31.8%). In the total foreign trade turnover of the Russian Federation, 49.5% of the turnover falls on the European Union, 23.3% falls on the APEC countries and 13.8% on the CIS countries. Consequently, the bulk of the foreign trade of the Russian Federation is carried out with the countries of the European Union. Among the EU countries, the largest share of foreign trade turnover is accounted for by the Netherlands (19.3% of the RF foreign trade turnover with the EU), Germany (16.5% of the RF foreign trade turnover with the EU) and Italy (12.3% of the foreign trade turnover RF with the EU) .The largest growth in foreign trade is observed by the socialist countries of APEC. At the same time, in the world as a whole, the growth rates of imports and exports are approximately equal. The given data indicate that in recent years there has been an increase in foreign trade turnover in Russia, 86.2% of which falls on non-CIS countries and 13.8% on CIS countries. The geographic structure of foreign trade turnover is characterized by an increase in trade with Western European countries and a relative reduction in the share of Asian countries. Strengthening the orientation of Russian foreign trade towards Western countries is associated with the possibility of obtaining loans, high technologies, new machinery and equipment.
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