Professional ethics is defined as. Professional ethics. Scientific professional ethics

This study guide is a brief reference book on the main issues of professional ethics and etiquette. The allowance is designed for students of special educational institutions. It can also be used by current professionals.

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The following excerpt from the book Professional ethics and etiquette (N. G. Schroeder, 2009) provided by our book partner - the company LitRes.

Chapter 2. Features of professional ethics

2.1. Essence of professional ethics

In the system of ethical knowledge, an important place is occupied by various types of applied ethics, which determine and develop the moral norms of people's communication in relation to various fields of activity. In the process of the historical development of society, especially in the 20th century, many special types of morality arose, among which professional ethics occupies a prominent place.

A society can function and develop normally only as a result of a continuous process of production of material and spiritual values, and the well-being of the subjects of labor and society largely depends on what moral goals and content are the relations of people in ensuring this process.

Professional ethics is a set of moral norms, rules, principles that regulate a person's attitude to his professional duties, duty, as well as the relationship of people in labor activity.

♦ norms of behavior prescribing a certain type of moral relationship between people that are optimal from the point of view of their professional activities;

♦ substantiation, interpretation of codes, tasks and goals of the profession.

Professional ethics as an integral part of morality is based on its general principles and attitudes, but considers them from the standpoint of specific problems in various types of work.

The structure of professional ethics is determined by the presence of the following elements:

♦ people's attitude to work, and through its characteristics to other people (industriousness, conscientiousness, thrift, accuracy, dedication, etc.; antipodes - laziness, dishonesty, negligence, etc.);

♦ motivation of labor activity (public good, earnings, organization of personal life, etc.; antipodes - careerism, vanity, greed, etc.);

♦ management and production regulation of labor duties (goal setting production activities organization of work in a team, encouragement of conscientious workers, etc.);

♦ means of achieving goals (training, education, example, authority of the leader, etc.);

♦ assessment of performance results (economic, economic, managerial, moral, etc.), their social significance;

♦ theoretical development of issues of professional ethics in connection with the development social production, deepening the division of labor, the emergence of new activities.

Professional ethics studies:

♦ qualities of a specialist's personality necessary for the performance of professional duties;

♦ moral relationships between specialists and objects of their activity (teacher - student, doctor - patient, seller - buyer);

♦ relationships between people within the workforce and the norms that govern them;

♦ goals and methods of professional training and education.

Professional Ethics:

♦ is a responsible, obligatory, but at the same time voluntary, ie free, activity of people who obey the rules, but are personally independent, comply with the law, but fulfill their duty;

♦ exists in a society with an established morality and reflects the differences between the moral requirements for specialists from universal or generally accepted in society norms and traditions of behavior. In this regard, professional ethics is sometimes called professional morality;

♦ affects the area of ​​human relations, develops especially in those professions where work requires direct contact with people. Particular attention is paid to the moral qualities of those workers who are associated with the right to dispose of people's lives (these are representatives of management, transport, services, healthcare, education). The irresponsible attitude of workers in these areas to their duties is dangerous for others, harms the team and leads to degradation of the individual;

♦ establishes standards of behavior for specialists, understanding the quality of their work as the best result for people, reliability and efficiency of goods and services;

♦ specifies the society's requirements for the moral aspects of the activities of specialists. The principles of professional ethics highlight the moral values ​​of the best, most educated and competent part of society, which takes responsibility for the state of affairs in enterprises.

Professional ethics in some cases is called professional deontology, or the doctrine of duty. The term "deontology" was originally identified with the doctrine of morality, then began to be understood as one of the concepts of morality, and finally as one of the sections of ethics. But professional ethics is a broader concept, since, along with deontological aspects, it also implies certain obligations and norms both within the professional environment and outside of work.

The main function of the norms of professional ethics is to exclude the influence of random, purely subjective motives and circumstances, psychological states, to ensure reliability, predictability, standardization and generally accepted behavior. Norms form expected behavior that is understandable to others.

Professional morality cannot be considered outside of unity with the generally accepted system of morality. Only on the basis of the principles and norms of general morality is it possible to generalize a new moral experience in the sphere of work, to define new norms and prohibitions of professional morality, to overcome obsolete rules and assessments. In turn, the violation of work ethics is accompanied by a violation of general moral principles. If there is a discrepancy between the system of morality and the content of professional codes, a conflict between them, preference should be given to the general principles of morality, since they deeper and more thoroughly determine changes in the conditions of people's life, including in the field of professional activity.

2.2. The origin of professional ethics

The division of labor led to the emergence of many professions. Some of them arose already in ancient times. Questions of the professional division of labor were considered by such thinkers of antiquity as Plato, Aristotle, and others. It is to this period that the moral institutions of the priests who performed judicial functions, the Hippocratic oath in medical practice, and other professional and ethical codes that regulate the attitude of workers to their professional duties belong.

The first professional-moral codes as charters for the intended purpose appeared in the 12th century, when the formation of the medieval guild organization of labor took place. Their emergence reflected the interests of certain social groups, united by social status and the nature of labor activity. Professional moral norms and requirements, fixed in the workshop charters of artisans of the Middle Ages, changed and were refined depending on the level of division of labor in society and changes in the content of the activities of representatives of the professions themselves. Numerous statutes determined the life of workshops and manufactories in cities (distribution of orders, sale of goods, purchase of raw materials, training of craftsmen, etc.).

The emergence of professional ethics in time preceded the creation of relevant scientific ethical theories. Everyday experience, the need to regulate the relationship of people of a particular profession led to the realization and formalization of certain requirements of professional ethics. Having arisen as a manifestation of everyday, ordinary moral consciousness, professional ethics further developed on the basis of a generalization of the practice of behavior of representatives of each professional group. These generalizations were summed up both in written and unwritten codes of conduct of various professional groups, as well as in the form of theoretical conclusions, which testified to the transition from ordinary to theoretical consciousness in the sphere of professional morality.

IN modern times these questions were considered by O. Comte, E. Durkheim and other representatives of positivism. A scientific explanation of them from a materialistic standpoint was first given by K. Marx and F. Engels.

Today, specialized moral codes are widely represented abroad, which regulate the process of labor activity to the smallest detail - the behavior of people of various ranks in production, communication between managers and subordinates, manner of dressing, gestures, etc.

Public opinion plays an active role in the formation and assimilation of the norms of professional ethics. When people interact, public opinion turns into a moral norm, which in turn can be the subject of criticism from public opinion. Different types of professional ethics have their own traditions. These are, first of all, those universal moral norms in the sphere of labor that humanity carried through various social epochs and preserved, although often in a modified form.

The formation of modern information society associated with an increase in the importance of professionalism, competence, the emergence of new professions, there are changes in traditional areas of work. Emerging professions give birth to corresponding moral codes labor relations, professional codes are becoming more complicated and supplemented, making up a systemic education based on general norms and principles of morality, in the aggregate they cover all types of professional relations.

2.3. Types of professional ethics

The development of society, accompanied by a constant deepening of the specialization of production, its complication, differentiation of working conditions, requires continuous improvement of professional activity. This entails a corresponding specification

professional duties, determines the need to develop new systems of moral requirements in various areas of work. A typological analysis of the sphere of labor activity allows not only to determine the objective grounds for the norms of professional ethics, but also to identify its main types.

Depending on the sphere of labor activity (production-economic, scientific, pedagogical, artistic, environmental, etc.), professional ethics is divided into the corresponding types: the ethics of a doctor, teacher, journalist, scientist, actor, artist, entrepreneur, engineer, builder and etc. Within the types of professional activity, there are many subspecies. For example, the ethics of an engineer is subdivided depending on the specifics of the activity into such subspecies as the ethics of a software engineer, a communications engineer, etc. In pedagogical ethics, the ethics of teachers of general education institutions, teachers of higher education, teachers preschool education etc.

The identification of types and subtypes of professional ethics indicates the diversity of regulatory requirements for specialists, the need to take into account the specifics of moral relations in each specific area of ​​professional work. At the same time, there are general professional moral norms that act as guiding principles, rules, models, requirements for a person's professional activity based on humanistic ideals.

Depending on the specifics of moral requirements in various types of professional activity, the significance of moral norms regulating the relations of specialists is determined. But some professions are characterized by increased moral requirements. These are professions whose objects are a person, his life, health, the formation of his professional and spiritual qualities (medicine, education, training, etc.). These areas of work are not amenable to programmed technological orderliness, strict regulation is impossible for them, creative activity, maximum humanism and dedication of a professional are required. Increased moral requirements determine for them the paramount importance of a sense of duty and a high degree of responsibility. They necessarily include additional moral standards of behavior - decency in public and private life, disinterestedness, selflessness, etc.

Each type of professional ethics is determined by the uniqueness of professional activity, has its own specific aspects in the implementation of the norms and principles of morality, which is the content of the professional moral code. Thus, the ethics of a scientist presupposes such moral qualities as scientific conscientiousness, honesty, and responsibility for the environment. The professional and moral position of a journalist is determined by such categories as professional duty, professional conscience, dignity, honor.

At the present stage, the ethics of business and business relations are being revived in Russia. Business etiquette involves, first of all:

♦ respect for authorities, laws, business partners;

♦ purposefulness. The moral values ​​of a business person should not run counter to the goals and values ​​of the organization;

♦ loyalty to the word;

♦ benevolence in relations with members of the team;

♦ honesty and truthfulness, positive image;

♦ respect for the right of private property;

♦ attentiveness to people, consumers of goods and services;

♦ continuous improvement (for example, to become the world's best entrepreneur).

Many features of professional ethics have spread to other professions from medicine. This is due to the fact that it was in medicine that the commandments of professional behavior in relation to the patient were first formulated. According to medical ethics, a medical worker should devote all knowledge and strength to the protection and improvement of human health, the treatment and prevention of diseases; be always ready to provide medical assistance; be attentive and caring to the patient; keep medical secrets; constantly improve their professional skills; in all actions be guided by the principles of morality, etc.

Pedagogical ethics, which studies the features of pedagogical morality, its principles and functions, has also been sufficiently developed. On the basis of pedagogical ethics, the foundations of pedagogical etiquette are developed, which is a set of rules for communication and behavior of people professionally involved in teaching and educating the younger generation: a teacher must love his profession, must know the psychology of students, be interested in their inner world, study their individual abilities.

Today there are more than a thousand professions, and their number is constantly increasing. The humanization of relations between people actualizes the importance of representatives of the humanitarian professions - journalists, psychologists, librarians, museum workers, teachers, artists. In the humanitarian field, professional ethics is connected, first of all, with the increment of humanitarian values. But the duty of the humanities is not limited narrow frames specific responsibility at the place of work is also participation in the formation of public opinion. The humanist as a professional creates and promotes socially significant ideas. Humanitarians are called upon to satisfy the need of society for the publication of knowledge, information, for the promotion of the new, progressive in culture. The professional duty of a humanist is to have communication skills, the ability to speak correctly and intelligibly, to easily express one's thoughts orally and in writing.

Requirements for the behavior of a representative of different professions are not always expressed in a clear, orderly system. Many of the rules of operation are simply generally accepted. Some of the new professions do not yet have well-established traditions and a long history (programmers, roboticists, etc.). But there are areas of activity where deviation from the rules is excluded, for example, diplomatic protocol implies strict adherence to etiquette rules.

2.4. Principles and norms of professional ethics

"Golden Rule" morality is considered the rule according to which one should not do to others what one does not wish for oneself. There is also a positive inverse formulation of this rule: “Treat others as you would like to be treated. In difficult situations, when a person finds it difficult to choose a line of behavior, he can mentally put himself in the place of the interlocutor and imagine what he would like to see and hear in this situation.

IN Everyday life and in business communication you can also use such a principle-hint "If you do not know what to do, act according to the law."

Virtually everything ethical principles and prescribed standards of conduct are formulated in the light of these provisions.

Private principles follow from the specific conditions, content and specifics of a particular profession. Some of the specific principles include:

♦ common sense principle: the norms of professional ethics should not be contrary to common sense, and common sense suggests that professional etiquette in general is aimed at maintaining order, organization, saving time and other reasonable goals;

♦ convenience principle: ethical standards should not constrain business relationships. Everything should be comfortable in professional activities - from the layout of the office space to the placement of equipment in it, from business clothes to the rules of conduct at work. Moreover, convenience should be provided to all participants in business processes;

♦ expediency principle. The essence of this principle is that every prescription of business ethics should serve certain purposes;

♦ principle of conservatism. Conservatism in the appearance of a business person, in his manners, inclinations involuntarily evokes associations with something unshakable, durable, reliable, and a reliable partner in business is a desire for every business person. Reliability, fundamentality, stability are attractive features in the business world. They have a meaningful connection with conservatism;

♦ the principle of nonchalance. It is important that professional ethics does not turn into an artificially imposed phenomenon. Ethical norms should be natural, easy and without tension to be fulfilled;

♦ principle "do no harm". The consequence of this principle is that there is no room for error. The laws of almost all civilized states provide for sanctions for the erroneous actions of professionals. Professionalism implies a full consciousness of responsibility, concentration, maximum concentration on work. Of course, people remain people, which means they can make mistakes, but negligence, a mistake due to oversight, laziness or indifference are unacceptable;

♦ the principle of the highest quality of work is common to all professions within the limits of the stipulated possibilities. The ability of a professional to develop creatively, improve his skills not only adds to his experience, but also strengthens his authority;

♦ principle of professional secrecy, confidentiality (from Latin confidentia - “trust”) information about customers, information requests, services, technologies, recipes. If sincerity and openness are expected from a person in personal relationships, then professional morality dictates that a specialist should always remember the need to keep special information related to his work secret. Professional secrecy dates back to the Hippocratic oath. A professional secret is fundamental in state, military service, banking, etc. A professional secret can have the status of state, military, commercial, medical, provide for various degrees of responsibility - from official to criminally punishable;

♦ conflict of interests. In all professions, a refusal to use one's official position for personal gain is required. Professional ethics affirms primacy official duties and secondary personal debt. A professional has no right to receive other income for work, except for the agreed wages. Briefly, this principle can be understood as the absence of privileges in connection with the profession. The conflict of interest is overcome by the performance of professional duty;

♦ the principle of collegiality. This principle is a direct consequence public entity person, orienting the latter to the subordination of his personal interests to the public. A person guided by the principle of collegiality feels a sense of belonging to the affairs of the team, its goals and tasks.

The adoption of collective decisions regarding the development strategy of a corporation, an organization, the unification of efforts for a prompt response in difficult situations does not lose its relevance at the present stage, when the degree of individual responsibility is increasing. In many professions, collective searches for solutions to difficult professional problems are no exception, production meetings are regularly held - planning meetings, five-minute meetings, departments, etc., in which all employees are required to take an active part.

Anniversaries, birthdays, weddings of employees are celebrated in production teams, congratulations on special successes. Sorrowful events do not go unnoticed, when this or that person especially needs support and compassion;

♦ the right to criticism. A professional must be able to criticize the work of colleagues without prejudice to the dignity of other employees, as well as correctly accept criticism addressed to him. Understanding the need for a critical analysis of activities, a constructive search for the best result is a condition for moving forward. But in this matter, it is most important to take care of the ethics of employee relations, not to allow criticism of the individual, and not ideas, settling scores, psychological confrontation;

♦ hedonistic principle. Hedonism is the principle of ethics, according to which the desire for pleasure and the avoidance of suffering is a natural human right. Hedonism in the professional

activity welcomes everything that prolongs the pleasure of life, softens inconveniences and smooths out troubles. Hedonism communicates to goods and services, along with utility and efficiency, comfort and pleasantness. Outward friendliness and friendliness of employees leave not only a pleasant impression on the client, but give him a good mood.

Hedonism obliges a professional to be optimistic, energetic, and able to inspire. A smile plays a special role. It opens the way to the hearts of other people. In sales, for example, a smile increases sales.

Consequently, etiquette culture should be a manifestation of a general moral culture, a person’s upbringing, his internal attitude towards others.

Professional ethics is also based on general moral norms. One of the most necessary norms is politeness, which is manifested in many specific rules of behavior: in greeting, addressing a person, in the ability to remember his name and patronymic, the most important dates of his life. True politeness is certainly benevolent, since it is one of the manifestations of sincere benevolence towards people. Kindness is the essential basis of politeness. Sincerity is a prerequisite for politeness.

Other important norms are tact and sensitivity. The content of these qualities is attention, deep respect for those with whom we communicate, the desire and ability to understand them, to feel what can give them pleasure, joy, or, conversely, cause irritation, annoyance, resentment.

Tact, sensitivity are manifested in a sense of proportion that should be observed in conversation, in business contacts, in the ability to feel the boundary beyond which words and deeds can cause undeserved resentment, grief, pain in a person.

A tactful person always takes into account specific circumstances: the difference in age, gender, social status, the place of conversation, the presence or absence of strangers. At the heart of tactful behavior is also the ability to control oneself.

A prerequisite for tact is respect for the other, manifested, in particular, in the ability to listen to him, in the ability to quickly and accurately determine the interlocutor's reaction to a particular statement.

An important etiquette norm is modesty, which manifests itself in the fact that a person does not strive to show himself better, more capable, smarter than others, does not emphasize his superiority, does not require any privileges, special amenities, services for himself. However, modesty should not be manifested in timidity and shyness.

The constant companion and adviser should be delicacy. This word most capaciously expresses what we mean when we talk about a sensitive, subtle attitude towards others, towards their feelings. But delicacy should not turn into flattery, lead to praising everything seen and heard.

Along with these generally accepted norms, honesty, truthfulness, commitment, diligence, justice, keeping promises and contracts are also important moral norms in professional ethics.

These principles and norms are not always taken into account in the actual practice of business relations. Sometimes the very language of ethics is seen as a hindrance in business dealings. Often in the business world they generally try to avoid talking about morality, ethical ideals, duty, social obligations, responsibility. These problems are perceived as "irrelevant". But the observance of ethical principles and norms is important, it is necessary both to increase the efficiency of production and to strengthen business ties, business relations in general.

The principles and norms of ethically competent behavior are specified in the rules of etiquette in specific situations.

2.5. Classification of ethical codes

The issue of codes (from codex - "book, set of laws") deserves special attention. Codes of professional associations are created as an addition to the legislation regulating the activities of professionals, as a rule, on their own initiative, as a result of self-determination, with the participation of lawyers, ethicists, in order to increase the responsibility of specialists for their actions. They remind of the moral goals of the profession, are the result of understanding specific ethical problems. The codes formulate the standards of professional behavior, the most important rules of activity are noted.

Originating as a way of concretizing official duties in the historical past, codes of ethics originate from the famous Hippocratic oath. Gradually, they become codes of laws within corporate use, an effective form of control over the activities of specialists.

In professionally homogeneous organizations such as banks and consulting companies, codes are often developed that describe in the first place professional problems. The content of ethical codes regulates the behavior of employees in difficult professional ethical situations. For example, in banking, the code describes how to handle information about the stability of the bank, with confidential information about the client; prohibits the use of this information for personal purposes.

The development of corporate culture is facilitated by the inclusion of an ideological part about the mission and values ​​of the company in the code. At the same time, the code can be of considerable volume, have complex specific content and be addressed to all employees of the company.

The structural code may contain the following sections:

♦ introduction;

♦ message from the head of the organization;

♦ the main mission of the organization, its goals;

♦ what should be the employee of the organization;

♦ labor dynasties;

♦ traditions and rituals of the organization;

♦ contests professional excellence;

♦ relationships with other organizations;

♦ public life of the organization;

♦ relationships between managers and subordinates;

♦ relationships between leaders;

♦ attitude towards women - employees of the organization;

♦ attitude towards young people working in the organization;

♦ attitude of the organization towards pensioners;

♦ requirements for the business suit of the employees of the organization.

Creating a code is not limited to writing the text of a document. There is a specificity in the execution of such documents: it is impossible to force the implementation of the code of ethics. In order for the code to really work, even at the stage of its creation, it is envisaged that all employees of the company be included in the document development process, if possible. Only under the condition that each employee accepts the code of corporate ethics will it be actually implemented.

Professional codes perform the following functions:

♦ reputational– building confidence in the company on the part of external groups (description of policies traditionally fixed in international practice in relation to customers, suppliers, contractors, etc.) in order to increase the investment attractiveness of the company. The presence of a company code of corporate ethics becomes a global standard for doing business;

♦ managerial- regulation of behavior in difficult ethical situations;

♦ development of corporate culture.

The Code provides for ways to improve the efficiency of employees:

♦ regulation of priorities in interaction with significant external groups;

♦ determining the order of decision-making in complex ethical situations, as well as unacceptable forms of behavior.

Classification of codes. There are currently three types of ethical codes:

1) a regulatory document with specifically developed rules, including sanctions against violators. Such codes are developed by authoritative experts and adopted at special symposiums;

2) relatively short charters, declarations are created in the process of forming a professional community. This is a kind of declaration of intent;

3) detailed codes of individual firms, organizations, including specific obligations of employees to customers and partners, employees and society.

Many large corporations, in an effort to maintain their image in the eyes of the general public and find their own line of conduct, develop codes of ethics. Their characteristic feature is that the sections containing recommendations for solving ethical problems are developed in more detail and carefully than other sections. Most codes are based on internal corporate control over their observance. Public (external) on the part of public organizations and state control over compliance with the code requires the creation of an appropriate state structure, which is quite expensive, which is burdensome for the budget of any country. A very difficult problem is the development of a unified system of motivation of employees to comply with the code of ethics. Of course, it is not possible to characterize and address in a code any ethical problem that employees may face. At the same time, the presence of office instructions allows solving ethical issues that are most common.

Codes are a kind of guide to correct behavior. The very existence of a code of ethics as a collective ethical standard helps employees understand the ethical nature of their business decisions. Written form makes codes even more important. Codes can provide a certain level of legal protection both to the company as a whole and to each employee individually.

Many companies form special divisions or hire special workers to create codes of ethics. At the same time, company employees are introduced to the provisions of these codes. A system is also being created to encourage employees who take into account ethical issues when making decisions and subject to the compliance of their official behavior with the ethical standards recorded in the codes.

2.6. The culture of business man clothing

The basis of etiquette culture in clothing is taste. Dressing with taste means paying attention to others. Of course, opinions about what “good taste” is may differ, but they have a lot in common. It is good taste that will always tell a person his own style - in clothes, hair, etc. Good taste allows, following fashion, to apply and adapt it to one's own appearance, character. Blindly following fashion, its exaggerated perception is tasteless. The appearance of a business person largely determines the effectiveness of professional relations and contributes to the creation of the necessary working atmosphere.

Clothes should be neat, cleaned and ironed, as neatness and smartness in clothes are often associated with organization in work, with the ability to value one's own and other people's time. Untidiness is a synonym for fussiness, forgetfulness.

Each professional group of people has its own style of clothing, appearance. But one can single out a general characteristic of the style of a business person - conservatism (since the business sphere is almost not subject to random influences); moderation, (there should not be too sharp color contrasts, excessively fanciful styles of clothes or shoes, etc.) A business person should look self-confident, solid, elegant, inspiring confidence, not devoid of taste, reliable, decent, neat.

Business Etiquette more lenient towards a woman, allowing her to deviate from rigid standards. Deviations concern, first of all, color. Although the main type of business casual wear for a woman, like for a man, is a suit, the gamut of colors of a women's suit is very extensive, in contrast to a man's suit, which is prescribed an extremely sparing choice - gray and blue, for special occasions - black.

The ability to find your own style in clothes, look attractive and fresh is especially important in working with people. Employees who spare no effort to achieve this are often perceived as more competent and move up the corporate ladder more easily.

2.7. Behavior in public places

Professionals, of course, spend most of their time at work. But they have to get to work every day in public transport, they visit shops, exhibitions, conferences, go to the theater, to the cinema, go on business trips. The mood and state of mind of not only them, but also those around them depend on how they behave in public places. Therefore, both on the street and in public places, it is unacceptable to violate the rules of good manners.

Rules of conduct on the street not any special ones. In our country, right-hand traffic, so it is customary to keep the right side on the street. When driving down the street, it is important not to touch others with elbows, an umbrella, a bag. If the sidewalk is wide enough, you should not go in the middle, and even more so against the movement. But if there is no other way, then you definitely need to apologize if you interfere with someone walking towards you. It is impossible with a large flow of people to abruptly cross the pedestrian zone and squeeze through the crowd. The one walking in front is bypassed on the left, and those coming towards them are bypassed on the right. If the sidewalk is narrow, then the man must give way to a woman, an elderly person, and, if necessary, even get off the sidewalk (of course, the younger must give way to the older). You should talk with the interlocutor, moving away from the walking mass of pedestrians.

Bag, briefcase, various things are better to keep in right hand. You should not wave your arms, especially if you have an umbrella, a cane, a briefcase in your hands.

Loud laughter and conversation, exclamations and gestures that attract the attention of others are not accepted on the street. Do not look back at passing pedestrians. It is necessary to be friendly and benevolent when addressing someone with a particular question. If on the street there is a need to ask a passerby with a question, then the question must be formulated briefly and accurately in advance. Having stopped a passerby or turning to a police officer (policeman), it is imperative to apologize for the inconvenience caused. Thank you for the clarification. In this case, you should not forget about the smile. By asking questions, you will make a favorable impression and are more likely to get the information you need.

Eating outside is strictly not recommended. If you get hungry, go to the cafe, in extreme cases, you can stop at the bistro kiosk for a bite to eat. Should not be used outdoors chewing gum, since a chewing person does not look aesthetically pleasing and his appearance may be unpleasant for others.

You can't spit on the street. If something has happened to you and you need to spit it out, it is better to use a handkerchief or paper napkin.

Usually men smoke on the street (in some countries this is prohibited). A woman on the street can smoke only in the most exceptional cases. If a man was asked to light a cigarette, it would be more polite to hold out a lighter or matches than a smoking cigarette.

Rules of conduct in public transport also based on generally accepted rules. It is the violation of the “passenger code of conduct”, which is still not uncommon, that causes poor health and low performance. The rules for passengers are quite simple, they are easy to remember: in the subway, tram, trolleybus, bus, you are first given the opportunity to get off. Outgoing ones have advantages, and only then comes the turn of incoming ones.

A man must let a woman, an elderly man, a disabled person go ahead, and, if necessary, help them when landing. If the transport is crowded, you should try to get up so as to interfere with others as little as possible.

Young people should give way to older people, pregnant women, women with small children. To accept the offer to take a given place should be with words of gratitude.

In transport, it is indecent to speak loudly and gesticulate; it is not at all necessary for others to take part in solving family or official affairs.

If you are reading a newspaper or a book on public transport, try to hold it so as not to disturb your neighbors. It is indecent to look over your shoulder at a book, newspaper or magazine that another passenger is reading.

In transport, it is not customary to comb your hair and put yourself in order. It is absolutely unacceptable to be in the salon with ice cream, a hot dog or an open bun. You can not ride in transport in dirty, soiling clothes.

You should not respond to rude remarks of other passengers in transport, enter into polemics with them. By not arguing, not answering rudeness with rudeness, you will look more attractive.

Rules of conduct in a trade enterprise. The business person often plays the role of the buyer. While in the store, you need to follow generally the same rules as in any other public place.

When entering the store, you should skip those leaving. In a small shop, it is customary to greet the seller. In such a store, the buyer can be offered assistance in selecting the right product. When leaving, do not forget to say goodbye.

The selected goods should be handled with care, try not to wrinkle or stain. Products should not be touched by hands (there are special forks, spatulas for this).

Approaching the checkout, you need to have ready the approximate amount needed for the purchase. You should only address the seller as “you”, regardless of his age. Refusing to purchase, you should thank the seller for the attention shown.

In the store, as in any other public place, you should try not to draw special attention to yourself, not to discuss your problems loudly.

IN large supermarkets in each department there is a duty salesman who can be contacted for advice and assistance. But usually in such stores, the buyer independently selects the desired product in a special basket.

The practice of ordering goods by telephone with delivery by a special messenger to your home or work has become widespread in many countries, and recently in Russia as well. For ordering household goods by phone, there is also such a service as “goods by mail”, when the item of interest can be ordered by selecting it from the catalog. Now the practice of ordering goods via the Internet is becoming more and more widespread.

In any trading establishment, the buyer usually deals with the seller and the cashier. By the way they look, they judge the level of the store as a whole. No wonder they say that the seller is the face of the store.

The seller must behave in a friendly manner, be neat and cleanly dressed, regardless of what he is selling. The seller must always be ready to help the buyer.

Rules for visiting cultural institutions. To visit the theater, cinema - they prepare in advance: they buy tickets and plan their time in such a way so as not to be late for the performance. In the theater, they usually put on an elegant dress, a dress suit. It is customary to come to the theater in advance in order to have time to undress, to hand over outerwear to the cloakroom. Entering the lobby of the theater, the men take off their hats. A man enters the auditorium first. Walking along the row to your place should be facing those sitting.

Acquaintances in the auditorium are greeted with a slight nod of the head, a smile, a hand is given only to those who are nearby.

It is customary to observe silence in the theater, except when the action is interrupted by applause.

Rules for visiting exhibitions, museums. Visiting a museum, an exhibition, an art gallery, etc. requires a lot of free time, and people prepare for a visit to a museum in advance. This means that you need to find out, if possible, about the exposition of a given museum, an art gallery, and if the museum is large enough, it is better to decide in advance what exactly you should see. To do this, you can use the catalog of the museum or the guide to the exhibition. Since it is known that a person is able to fully perceive information while maintaining attention, within about three hours it is worth choosing either the works of interest to you, or the work of one artist or sculptor, or any one department dedicated to a certain period.

In museums and at many exhibitions, it is customary to take off outerwear, hand over bags and briefcases to the cloakroom or storage room, in a number of museums you need to wear special shoes.

When viewing, one should not get too close to the exhibits and, moreover, touch them with their hands. An educated person will not react violently to what he sees in museum halls, expressing his delight or indignation.

During the tour, well-mannered people silently listen to the guide's story. It is not customary to have discussions with tour guides. You can not talk loudly with other members of the group, and questions can only be asked during pauses that the guide specifically makes, or at the end of the tour. You should be restrained in both words and gestures.

Business trip rules. Going on the road, you should not forget the basic rules of behavior on the train, plane, while staying in a hotel.

To the train it is advisable to arrive a little earlier so that there is enough time to calmly enter the car and unpack the luggage. If you are not traveling alone, but with a companion or companion older than you, you should enter the car first, unpack your luggage, and only then help your companion or an elderly person enter the car. Upon entering the compartment, you should say hello, but it is not necessary to introduce yourself and introduce your companions to your compartment neighbors. Usually, seats on the train are taken according to the tickets purchased, but a polite person will offer his lower (more convenient) seat to an elderly person, a woman, a mother with a child. It is customary to help unpack their luggage.

If the trip is short and the travel time falls on a day, then it is not necessary to change clothes on the train. It is only important to ensure that the clothes do not wrinkle much, do not lose their appearance, do not become untidy. If the trip is long, it is better to change into a travel (you can wear a sports) suit. A woman in a dressing gown and a man in pajamas look indecent. Comfortable shoes should be on the feet, but not slippers. It is not necessary to meet fellow travelers. You may not have long conversations with random people. Loquacity is a sign of bad parenting. However, if there is a common topic for conversation with fellow travelers, then it should be supported. A long trip together with people who have not known before will not be tiring if all fellow travelers are helpful to each other, tactful and polite.

The food that the passenger takes with him on the train should not have a strong smell, should not be perishable. Stock up on napkins. You need to eat (as, indeed, everywhere), carefully. Paper, cans, bags should be carefully collected and discarded. The rest of the food is better to put in a bag, leaving nothing on the table.

It is not entirely tactful when people occupying the lower places in the compartment, as it were, appropriate the priority right to use the table.

It is not customary to smoke in the compartments and corridors of the car. Usually a vestibule is used for this purpose. You can also smoke in the dining car. But in the train restaurant, unlike ordinary restaurants, it is not customary to stay too long so as not to delay other passengers who want to eat.

When approaching your destination, you need to put yourself in order in time, change clothes and collect your luggage. Leaving the compartment, you need to politely say goodbye to your neighbors and wish them a happy journey. If a man is traveling with a woman, he must go out first, take out the luggage and help his companion get out.

End of introductory segment.

1. Introduction

2. Professional and ethical standards and principles that a modern leader should use in his activities:

2.1 Basic ethical rules and norms of behavior.
2.2 Basics of interaction in the system "boss-subordinate".
2.3 Ways and directions of improving ethics in management activities.

3. Conclusion

4. List of used literature

Introduction

Today, Russian society is characterized by new requirements for the individual, for his morality, for his behavior and actions. Distinguish between universal ethics (it is also called universal) and professional ethics. The role of ethics as a science in the current period being experienced by modern Russian society is great: it must analyze the moral state of society, indicate the reasons that caused this state, and propose solutions that would help update the moral guidelines of society.

The chosen topic is very relevant in modern conditions, as professional ethics develops norms, standards, requirements specific to certain types of activities. Thus, professional ethics is a code of conduct, a prescribed type of relationship that seems to be the best from the point of view of employees fulfilling their official duties in a particular professional area (in the production of products, in the provision of services, etc.).
The purpose of this work is to determine the professional and ethical norms and principles that a modern leader should use in his activities.

For this, the following tasks were set (the main issues to be developed (research)):

To study the basic ethical rules and norms of behavior;
- basics of interaction in the "supervisor-subordinate" system;
- ways and directions of improving ethics in management activities.

2. PROFESSIONAL AND ETHICAL NORMS AND PRINCIPLES THAT A MODERN LEADER SHOULD USE IN HIS ACTIVITIES

2.1 Basic ethical rules and norms of behavior

• democracy of communication between a manager and subordinates, colleagues at work;
• its availability, attentiveness;
• the ability to create a friendly atmosphere of trust;
• courtesy and correctness in handling;
• accuracy and responsible attitude to this word.

Business ethics is professional ethics that regulates the system of relations between people in the field of business. Ethics of business relations deals with the analysis of relationships between business partners from the standpoint of interpreting moral assessments of the reasons for success or failure in any activity, in particular, in commercial and managerial. Translated from the Greek language, ethics means custom, disposition. Ethics is based on principles that guide correct behavior. For the first time, the term "ethics" was used by Aristotle, who lived in ancient times and raised the question of what people should do in order to perform correct, moral deeds. Ethics - the doctrine of morality and morality. The most important categories of ethics: good, evil, justice, duty, conscience, responsibility, etc. Depending on how a person understands moral norms, what content he puts into them and to what extent he takes into account in communication, he can either facilitate business communication, make its effective, achieve its goals, or make this communication very difficult. Since in business communication people strive to achieve not only common, but also significant personal goals, in business relations the so-called Golden Rule Ethics: “Whatever you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others” (Confucius). This rule is the moral regulator of business relations, which prevents boundless selfishness in partnerships. Civilized societies with developed markets have found that moral business is ultimately more profitable than immoral business that destroys business partnerships. Ethics of business relations is based on such rules and norms of behavior that ultimately develop cooperation, strengthen business relations, coordinate or even harmonize interests. A concrete expression of this is the strengthening of mutual trust, openness of intentions and actions. However, putting ethical principles into practice is far from easy. In a market economy, which provides freedom of action to its participants, business people often face problems in the course of their activities and communication. moral dilemmas. They arise from the contradictions of life itself: on the one hand, a person seeks to behave morally, properly, focusing on a moral ideal, and on the other hand, he needs to satisfy his needs, which is often associated with a violation of moral standards. Thus, ideal norms come into conflict with the actual norms of people's behavior, a lofty ideal may not coincide with practical calculation. The effectiveness of business communication can be significantly increased if you follow the provisions developed by the practice of communication itself. You should know that:

In morality there is no absolute truth and no supreme judge among men;

When it comes to the ethical failures of others, one should not make "moral flies" into "moral elephants";

In morality, one should praise others, and make claims against oneself;
- the moral attitude of others towards us ultimately depends only on ourselves;

When it comes to the practical approval of moral norms, the main imperative of behavior is "Start with yourself." Without observing the ethics of business communication between a leader and a subordinate, many people experience discomfort, feel morally unprotected.

2.2. The system "Head-subordinate"

Compliance with the principles of business ethics is very important in the process of communicating with partners, as it serves as the most reliable confirmation of the true image of the company for the partner. The first impression of communication with company employees is very difficult (and expensive) to correct. Hence - a special approach to hiring staff directly communicating with the client. In turn, the ethics of business relations can be considered in a broader context - in the context of professional ethics and the moral culture of a person in general. Professional ethics is a code of conduct, a prescribed type of relationship that seems to be the best from the point of view of employees fulfilling their official duties in a particular professional area (in the production of products, in the provision of services, etc.). One of the main elements of the culture of communication is the moral behavior of people. This behavior is based on universal moral principles and norms - respect for human dignity, honor, nobility, decency, correctness, a sense of duty, accuracy, etc. Actually, they form the moral basis of business relations. Principles are abstract, generalized ideas that enable those who rely on them to correctly shape their behavior, their actions, their attitude to something. In relation to the principles of business ethics, the above is formulated as follows: principles of business ethics, i.e. professional ethics, give a specific employee of ours, and indeed in any organization, a conceptual ethical platform for decisions, actions, actions, interactions, etc. . There is no disagreement among business theorists and practitioners on the scale of the global economy as to which principle should open the list of ethical principles and norms, both for the subjects of ethics - individual employees, and for the collective carriers of ethical principles - organizations. The central position of the so-called gold standard is generally accepted: "Within the framework of your official position, never allow in relation to your subordinates, to management, to colleagues of your official level, to clients, etc. such actions that you would not want to see in relation to yourself." The order of the principles of business ethics considered below is not determined by their significance. The second principle is that there must be fairness in giving employees what they need for their official activity resources (cash, raw materials, material, etc.). The third principle requires mandatory correction ethical violation regardless of when and by whom it was admitted. According to the fourth principle, called the principle of maximum progress, the official behavior and actions of an employee are recognized as ethical if they contribute to the development of the organization (or its divisions) from a moral point of view. The logical continuation of the fourth principle is the fifth - the principle of minimum progress, according to which the actions of an employee or organization as a whole are ethical if they at least do not violate ethical standards. The essence of the sixth principle is as follows: ethical is the tolerant attitude of the employees of the organization to the moral principles, traditions, etc. that take place in other organizations, regions, countries. The seventh principle recommends a reasonable combination of individual relativism and ethical relativism with the requirements of universal human ethics. According to the eighth principle, individual and collective principles are equally recognized as the basis for developing and making decisions in business relations.

2.3. Ways and directions of improving ethics in management activities

The ethics of a leader is largely related to the content of their previous professional activities, the characteristics of life experience, the level and profile of professional education.

According to one of the definitions, professional ethics is a set of rules for the conduct of a certain social group, providing the moral nature of the relationship, due to or associated with professional activities.

Most often, the need to comply with the norms of professional ethics is faced by people employed in the service sector, medicine, education - in a word, wherever daily work is associated with direct contact with other people and where there are increased moral requirements.

Professional ethics originated on the basis of similar interests and cultural requirements of people united by one profession. The traditions of professional ethics develop along with the development of the profession itself, and at present the principles and norms of professional ethics can be enshrined at the legislative level or expressed through generally accepted norms of morality.

The concept of professional ethics is associated, first of all, with the characteristics of a particular profession, in relation to which this term is used. So, for example, the “Hippocratic oath” and medical secrecy are one of the elements of the professional ethics of doctors, and the impartial presentation of true facts is an element of the professional ethics of journalists.

Features of professional ethics

In any profession, honest and responsible performance of one's duties is one of the most important rules of professional ethics. However, some features of professional ethics may be unknowingly or carelessly missed by a novice specialist - then such an employee may be recognized as unsuitable for the performance of his duties.

To prevent this from happening, you should remember the basic norms and principles of professional ethics:

Their work should be carried out professionally, strictly in accordance with the assigned authority;
in work one should not be guided by one's personal likes and dislikes, one should always observe objectivity;
when working with personal data of customers or other persons, companies, the strictest confidentiality should always be observed;
in their work, one should not allow the emergence of off-duty relationships with clients or colleagues, managers or subordinates;
observe the principle of collegiality and do not discuss your colleagues or subordinates in the presence of clients, partners or other persons;
it is impossible to prevent the disruption of an already accepted order by refusing it in favor of another (more profitable) order;
discrimination of clients, partners, colleagues or subordinates on the basis of gender, race, age or any other grounds is unacceptable.

Currently, professional standards are developing and improving, social relations are changing. And in this new picture of the world, more than ever, the important ability to respect nature and the people around is the main advantage of the professional ethics of representatives of any profession.

Code of Professional Ethics

The standards that members of the professions must adhere to are defined in their codes of professional ethics. It is understood that codes of professional ethics govern the professional activities of all members of the profession, both self-employed and employed.

It is believed that codes of professional ethics should formulate strict standards of behavior for members of the professions. However, in fact, these codes are designed to solve a variety of problems. Some codes are simply used to show that such and such a group is a profession. Some codes proclaim a set of ideals (often unattainable) that members of the profession should strive to achieve and by which they should be guided in their practice.

Other codes, or sections thereof, are disciplinary in nature, setting out the minimum conditions that a member of the profession must comply with. If a member of the profession does not comply with this minimum, he is subject to penalties, the most serious of which is exclusion from the profession. There are codes that formulate the etiquette of this profession. There are unified codes that include both a set of ideals and a list disciplinary rules and standards of professional conduct.

If a professional code is to serve as a framework that allows the profession to claim autonomy from non-professional social control (such as doctors and lawyers) to which other groups are subject, such a code should have the following properties:

1. The Code must be regulatory and purposeful. The inclusion of ideals in it is not forbidden. But it should be precisely defined in it which of its provisions are ideals, and which are of a disciplinary, punitive nature. If the code does not actually regulate the behavior of members of the profession, it does not actually have a public declaration that serves as a basis for society to recognize it as a profession. Society recognizes the autonomy of the profession, provided that it obliges its members to adhere to higher standards of conduct than members of other groups, and therefore professional standards must be known to the population, they must be perceived as higher than other standards.
2. The Code is intended to protect the public interest and the interests of those whom the profession serves. If the society does not benefit from granting autonomy to the profession, it should deprive it of this privilege. The code should not be a self-service tool for the profession. Codes can be used to serve the interests of the profession at the expense of society. Some rules (for example, rules regarding the setting of fees or restrictions on advertising) protect the profession and are contrary to the public interest. Provisions in codes that discourage competition within the profession are usually not in the public interest; they are aimed at emphasizing the negative, monopolistic properties of the profession.
3. Codes must be precise and fair. The Code, which simply states that members of the profession must not lie, steal, or cheat, requires nothing beyond what is required of all other people. When the code is honestly drafted, it reflects aspects of the profession that characterize specific temptations that members of the profession may experience. Autonomy is granted to the profession because it is aware of the possible specific errors, the shortcomings of this profession - its dark sides, its unethical, although not entirely illegal methods. If such methods are not clearly defined in the code, the profession does not actually control its activities.
4. The code must be both controllable and controlling. If the code does not contain provisions for the filing of charges and the application of punishments, it is nothing more than a declaration of ideals. If a profession cannot prove by all its activities that it controls its members, society has no reason to believe that it does. In such cases, there is no basis for granting special privileges to the profession. Accordingly, society must make laws concerning the activities of the members of this profession and establish control over their activities, just as it controls members of other occupations.

While the professions may enforce the rules of their codes, they are not the courts. Violation of the professional code entails only limited disciplinary action. The most severe punishment, as mentioned above, can be expulsion from the profession along with public disclosure of the offense. The most commonly practiced is censure.

Occupational codes tend to ignore such issues faced by at least some members of the profession. Occupational codes often specify responsibilities to the client or patient, to the employer (if a member of the profession is employed), to the public, and to the profession itself. What does a member of the profession have to do when these duties conflict with each other? For example, what should a company doctor do when told not to disclose information about an increase in rates of work-related illness among factory workers? Are his duties to society and to patients (workers) higher than those to the employer?

In addition, professional codes do not contain indications of what measures should be taken when the profession itself acts inappropriately.

Professional ethics of a lawyer

Ethics is the doctrine of the norms of morality and morality that have developed in society and which every person must comply with. If he does not do this, then it will be simply impossible to live in such a society, in my opinion. Would anyone like it if, say, they were treated with disrespect or insulted? Such a society has no future, and sooner or later it will surely fall apart.

The professional ethics of a lawyer are also norms of morality and morality, only related directly to the activities of a lawyer. They are enshrined in the Code of Professional Ethics of a Lawyer, which was adopted by the All-Russian Congress of Lawyers. They are an integral part of the work of every lawyer and are as important as legal knowledge. Without compliance with these norms, the existence of the legal community as a whole is impossible. Each lawyer is obliged to carry out his activities strictly in accordance with ethical rules and not to violate the professional ethics of a lawyer. As noted in the Lawyer's Code of Professional Ethics, morality is above the will of the principal. In addition, the observance of the professional ethics of a lawyer is also entrusted to assistants and interns of a lawyer in the part corresponding to their job responsibilities which, in turn, once again emphasizes the importance of the professional ethics of a lawyer.

So, the professional ethical standards of lawyers can be conditionally divided into several groups that regulate:

The relationship of a lawyer with a client;
- relations between lawyers;
- the lawyer's relationship with the court and other authorities.

Relationship between a lawyer and a client

The Code of Professional Ethics for Lawyers explains in great detail the rules of conduct that a lawyer must adhere to when providing legal assistance to his client. First of all, this is the rule of attorney-client privilege. This is perhaps one of the most important and basic rules of professional ethics of a lawyer. Since without confidence in the preservation of attorney-client secrecy, there will be no trust between a lawyer and his client. And without trust, it is difficult to provide qualified legal assistance. A lawyer's secret is absolutely any information communicated by the principal to the lawyer, the storage period of which is not limited in time. Such information is also not subject to disclosure.

Also, another rule of professional ethics of a lawyer is that a lawyer cannot provide legal assistance to a client based on his own benefit, immoral interests or as a result of pressure from outside.

A lawyer cannot act contrary to the will of the principal to take a position on the case that is opposite to the position of the principal. The only exception is the case if the defense lawyer in a criminal case is convinced of the self-incrimination of his client.

Another important rule is that a lawyer cannot protect persons whose interests conflict with each other's interests.

Relations between lawyers

Relations between lawyers must be based on mutual respect. A lawyer must not use expressions that detract from honor, dignity, and business reputation another lawyer in connection with the implementation of his advocacy. The professional ethics of a lawyer in this case requires respect for a colleague.

Lawyer's relationship with the court and other authorities

Here the lawyer must also behave tactfully, avoid rudeness. So, for example, if a lawyer objects to the actions of judges and other participants in the process, then he must do this in the correct form and in accordance with the law.

The above rules of the lawyer's professional ethics are just a part of those rules that are enshrined in the Lawyer's Code of Professional Ethics. They are mandatory for a lawyer in the exercise of his activities. If a lawyer does not comply with these rules of professional ethics of a lawyer, then he is subject to disciplinary liability, which can be expressed in a remark, warning, or even termination of the status of a lawyer. But the most important thing is that, without observing the Code of Professional Ethics, a lawyer will not be able to provide qualified legal assistance to his principal.

I would also like to note that if a lawyer is not sure how to act in a difficult ethical situation, he has the right to apply to the Council of the relevant bar association of the subject Russian Federation for an explanation.

Professional Ethics

Professional ethics is a system of moral principles, norms and rules of behavior of a specialist, taking into account the characteristics of his professional activity and specific situation. Professional ethics should be an integral part of the training of each specialist. The content of any professional ethics consists of general and particular.

The general principles of professional ethics, based on universal norms of morality, suggest:

A) professional solidarity (sometimes degenerating into corporatism);
b) a special understanding of duty and honor;
c) a special form of responsibility due to the subject and type of activity.

Private principles stem from the specific conditions, content and specifics of a particular profession and are expressed mainly in moral codes - requirements in relation to specialists.

Professional ethics, as a rule, concern only those types of professional activity in which there is a different kind of dependence of people on the actions of a professional, that is, the consequences or processes of these actions have a special impact on the life and fate of other people or humanity. In this regard, traditional types of professional ethics are distinguished, such as pedagogical, psychological, medical, legal, ethics of a scientist, and relatively new ones, the emergence or actualization of which are associated with an increase in the role of the “human factor” in this type of activity (engineering ethics) or strengthening its influence in society (journalistic ethics, bioethics).

Professionalism and attitude to work are important qualitative characteristics of the moral character of a person. They are of paramount importance in the personal assessment of the individual, but at various stages of historical development their content and assessment varied significantly. In a class-differentiated society, they are determined by the social inequality of the types of labor, the opposite of mental and physical labor, the presence of privileged and unprivileged professions, and depend on the degree of class self-awareness. professional groups, sources of their replenishment, the level of the general culture of the individual, and so on.

Professional ethics is not a consequence of inequality in the degree of morality of various professional groups. But society imposes increased moral requirements on certain types of professional activity. There are such professional spheres in which the labor process itself is based on the high coordination of the actions of its participants, exacerbating the need for solidarity behavior. Particular attention is paid to the moral qualities of workers in those professions that are associated with the right to dispose of people's lives, significant material values, some professions from the service sector, transport, management, health care, education, and so on. Here we are not talking about the actual level of morality, but about the duty, which, left unfulfilled, can in any way hinder the performance of professional functions.

Profession is a certain type of labor activity that requires necessary knowledge and skills acquired through training and long-term labor practices.

Professional types of ethics are those specific features of professional activity that are aimed directly at a person in certain conditions of his life and activity in society.

Professional moral norms are guiding principles, rules, samples, standards, the order of internal self-regulation of a person based on ethical and humanistic ideals. The emergence of professional ethics in time preceded the creation of scientific ethical theories about it. Everyday experience, the need to regulate the relationship of people of a particular profession led to the realization and formalization of certain requirements of professional ethics. Public opinion plays an active role in the formation and assimilation of the norms of professional ethics.

Professional ethics, having arisen initially as a manifestation of everyday, ordinary moral consciousness, later developed on the basis of a generalized practice of the behavior of representatives of each professional group. These generalizations were summed up both in written and unwritten codes of conduct of various professional groups, and in the form of theoretical conclusions, which testified to the transition from ordinary to theoretical consciousness in the sphere of professional morality.

The main types of professional ethics are: medical ethics, pedagogical ethics, ethics of a scientist, ethics of law, entrepreneur (businessman), engineer, etc. Each type of professional ethics is determined by the uniqueness of professional activity, has its own specific aspects in the implementation of the norms and principles of morality and in together constitutes a professional code of morality.

Professional and universal ethics

Professional activity leads to many questions that are ethical in nature, which are not considered and cannot be resolved by means of universal ethics. Professional ethics studies professional morality as a concretization of general moral principles and norms in relation to the characteristics of a particular type of professional activity.

Professional morality arises with the social division of labor, which marked the beginning of the professional isolation of social groups. With the formation of professional groups, a social need arises to regulate the relations of people within these groups. Initially, it was a small circle of professions, which, in the process of further specialization of labor, became more and more differentiated, as a result of which more and more new professions arose.

Depending on the specific historical conditions, one or another aspect of professional activity comes to the fore. The attitude of society towards it determines its value.

What determines the moral assessment of the profession? Firstly, by the fact that this profession gives objectively for community development. Secondly, by the fact that this profession gives a person subjectively, in the sense of a moral impact on him. Every profession, insofar as it exists, performs a certain social function. Representatives of this profession have their own public purpose, their functions, their goals. One or another profession determines the choice of a specific communication environment that leaves its mark on people, regardless of whether they want it or not.

Within each professional group certain specific connections and relations of people are formed. Depending on the object of labor, the tools of labor, the methods used and the tasks to be solved, a unique originality of situations, difficulties and even dangers arises that require a certain type of actions, methods, psychological reactions from a person. Each profession has its own moral "temptations", moral "valours" and "losses", certain contradictions arise, and peculiar ways of resolving them are developed.

A person is involved in professional activity with his subjective world of feelings, experiences, aspirations, moral assessments, with his own way of thinking. Among the diverse situations in professional relations, the most typical ones begin to stand out, which characterize the relative independence of the profession, its moral atmosphere. And this, in turn, determines the specifics of people's actions, the originality of the norms of their behavior.

Thus, as soon as professional relations acquired qualitative stability, this led to the formation of special moral attitudes corresponding to the nature of work, i.e., to the emergence of professional morality with its original cell - a norm that reflects the practical expediency of certain forms of relationships both between members of a professional group, and between the group itself and society. The historical development of the professional norm proceeded from the concrete to the abstract. Initially, its meaning is purely concrete and is associated with a certain real action or object. Only as a result of a long development does its semantic content acquire a general, proper moral meaning.

Each epoch has its own complex of distinct professional norms, i.e. professional morality. Having arisen, professional morality becomes a certain spiritual reality with relative independence. It begins to live its own life and turns into an object of reflection, study, analysis, assimilation, becomes a force that directs the behavior of a representative of a particular profession. If there were a code of ethical principles that applied to all cultures, philosophies, beliefs, and professions, it could provide such a universally useful system that would make people act according to their conscience and guide our actions.

There are many methods of decision making, but only a few show when situations might have moral implications. However, the information itself is the first decisive step towards decision making. Recognizing the moral implications of a situation must precede any attempt to solve the problem. Otherwise, what should be done?

Moral collisions and conflicts are very rarely presented to us as expected and predictable. They usually come suddenly before we have had a chance to recognize them, or develop so gradually that we only recognize them in retrospect; it's like we only notice a snake after we've been bitten.

Can be offered following rules ethical behavior as guidelines - general guidelines that should be used as a compulsion to work according to their moral principles. They are not absolute and rather more like an approximate system of measures, where the only exact option is not possible. They often contradict each other in practice, and sometimes one option has much more benefits under certain circumstances. But these principles must be reckoned with.

In a sense, these principles are the children of the founders of all principles - unconditional love and compassion. They appear in all religions, and in this case they are expressed as "concern for the well-being of others." They are also similar to the statement that we should just follow our intuition and rely on our "inner voice". However, this voice is not always clear, and today's society can present difficult circumstances that require more management than "anxiety for others." This set of norms of behavior is offered as a more detailed reference.

For ease of reference, the principles are grouped into three categories; personal, professional and global ethics.

Principles of personal ethics

These principles can be called morality because they reflect the general expectations of every person in any society. These are the principles we try to instill in our children and expect from others.

They include:

concern for the welfare of others;
respect for the right of others to be independent;
reliability and honesty;
voluntary obedience to the law (with the exception of civil disobedience);
Justice;
giving up an unfair advantage over others;
charity, the opportunity to benefit;
prevention of harmful effects.

Principles of professional ethics of a psychologist

In addition to what all people aspire to, a person, acting in a work environment, takes on the burden of additional ethical responsibility. For example, professional associations have codes of ethics that dictate the required behavior within the context of professional practice, such as psychology. These written attitudes determine the behavior and activities of the psychologist.

The Code of Ethics of the Psychologist, adopted by the V Congress of the Russian Psychological Society, reveals the “ethical principles of the psychologist”: “the principle of respect (respect for the dignity, rights and freedoms of the individual, confidentiality, awareness and voluntary consent of the Client, self-determination of the Client), the principle of competence (knowledge of professional ethics , limitation of professional competence, limitation of the means used, professional development), the principle of responsibility (primary responsibility, doing no harm, resolving ethical dilemmas), the principle of honesty (awareness of the limits of personal and professional opportunities, honesty, directness and openness, avoidance of conflicts of interest, responsibility and openness to the professional community).

Principles of World Ethics

Each of us affects the world only by simply existing (it is always wise to think globally!). An additional measure of responsibility is set at a level corresponding to the world level, such as, for example, governments and transnational corporations (with an increase in power, responsibility also increases, whether we like it or not).

One element of the burden of leadership is the ability to influence society and make world affairs (in a positive sense). Can a person (or company) be truly successful by causing human suffering or irreparable damage to the environment? Modern and complete model success must also take into account the impact on humanity and the environment.

The principles of worldwide ethics include:

Compliance with global legislation;
social responsibility;
control environment;
interdependence and responsibility
for integrity;
respect for housing.

Coexistence of principles

It is important to keep in mind that the principles of personal ethics are the first reference point in any situation, including the Levels of Professional and Worldwide Ethics. For example, when we judge whether a corporation has been socially responsible at the international level, it is necessary to take into account the principles of personal responsibility as required condition. Charitable contributions (opportunity to benefit) may mean nothing if the corporation has not taken responsibility for minimizing the damage caused by its business operations (prevention of harmful consequences).

Social functions of professional ethics

Since professional ethics is formed on the basis of the characteristic duties and tasks of the profession, on the situations in which people may find themselves in the process of performing these tasks, the first and main social function of professional ethics is to promote the successful solution of the tasks of the profession. In addition, professional ethics plays the role of an intermediary that combines the interests of society and professional groups of the population. The interests of society appear in professional ethics in the form of obligation, requirement, obligation to fulfill social tasks, achieve social ideals.

Professional ethics is involved in reconciling the interests of society and the individual within this social group; this is also one of its social functions. Different types of professional ethics have their own traditions, more or less old, which indicates the continuity of the basic ethical norms developed by representatives of a particular profession over decades.

Professional ethics thus links and inherits progressive moral values ​​in moral relations. labor sphere society; this is also one of the most important social functions of professional ethics.

Professional Ethics

Every person who has just started working wants to advance in career ladder. Many start in small positions, work as interns or with probationary period. The first stages of work are the most important period during which management and employees form an opinion about a new person. And promotion depends on the start.

The immediate superiors promotes a person, offering a higher position, a more responsible and highly paid post. At the first stage, you should immediately clearly and irrevocably determine your place in the team. Having looked closely at the style of work adopted in this company, decide for yourself at what stage in terms of professional level you are now.

Very often, it is the violation of business and professional ethics that is a strong brake on the path to career heights. Many factors influence promotion: behavior in a team, at corporate events, relationships with colleagues, the right style of clothing, competent speech, etc.

All this is true for people who want to firmly establish themselves in the world of market relations and achieve their goals. Since modern commerce is often based on international business relations, one should know the rules of etiquette adopted in other states and follow them steadily. Failure to comply with the norms of behavior often leads to the breakdown of sustainable partnerships and the loss of sales markets. Business etiquette rules change over time. But every business person should know that today it is not enough just to be friendly and polite. General principles in business etiquette acquire their own specifics.

This can be expressed in five basic rules - a guide for people involved in business:

1. Punctuality. Being late for work interferes with the current workflow and characterizes the offender as an employee who cannot be relied upon. A business person calculates the time to complete each stage of work up to a minute. Practice shows that it should be determined with a small margin, taking into account unforeseen circumstances. A business person calculates all actions ahead, does not waste time, anticipates complications and delays, adjusts his schedule and strives to comply with it.
2. Non-disclosure of unnecessary information. Personnel, technological, administrative, financial secrets of the company should not be the subject of discussion of employees. It is unacceptable to disclose the trade secrets of the organization, as well as information about the personal lives of colleagues.
3. Care not only about yourself, but also about other members of the team. In order to effectively and successfully conduct business, one should take into account the interests, opinions and principles of partners, buyers, corporate clients, etc. Selfishness, excessive emotionality, restraint, unfair competition, intrigues against colleagues for the purpose of self-realization and career advancement are unacceptable in the work process. You should listen to the interlocutors patiently, treat other people's opinions with due respect, even if it contradicts your own. Such manifestations as intolerance to another's opinion, humiliation and insult of the opponent are unacceptable. A business person is well aware that in the world of business, repetition of situations and cooperation with today's competitors are possible.
4. business style clothes. The appearance of a person should correspond to his status in the team, not to stand out from the generally accepted style, testify to taste, rigor and modesty. It is important that the clothes are fully consistent with the working environment, do not irritate colleagues, be clean, ironed and tidy.
5. Competent oral and written presentation of thoughts. Both oral and written speech of a business person should be clearly constructed, accessible and competent. For successful public speaking and everyday communication in the office with employees, partners and customers, it does not hurt to learn the art of rhetoric. Clear diction is especially important. If there are speech defects, it is best to visit a speech therapist and make an effort to correct them. In business communication, the use of colloquial and slang words, argotism, slang, as well as offensive expressions is unacceptable. Intonation and pronunciation are of great importance, especially in conversations with foreign citizens, partners or clients. A business person can not only speak, but also listen to others.

There are certain rules for communication between colleagues of different sexes:

Men in the presence of women do not allow rudeness and sharp words.
Men hold the doors for their female colleagues, letting them go ahead.
Men stand up in the presence of a female colleague if she is standing.
A man gives a coat to a female colleague if they are in the wardrobe at the same time. If a female colleague leaves while the men are busy with work, a deviation from this rule is permissible: the main thing is work.

It is important to remember that restrained and curtailed display of ethical standards and courtesies during the work process is not considered a violation of the rules.

Professional ethics of a teacher

Ethics of a teacher is a phenomenon, in our opinion, quite special.

And yet, its essence and content, like any professional ethics, are most fully and consistently revealed through the analysis of its structure, in which four main blocks can be distinguished:

Firstly, it is the ethics of the teacher's attitude to his work, to the subject of his activity.

Secondly, it is the ethics of relations "vertically" - in the "teacher-student" system, which considers the basic principles, norms of these relations and the requirements for the personality and behavior of the teacher.

Thirdly, this is the ethics of relations “horizontally” - in the “teacher-teacher” system, which considers those relations that are regulated not so much by general norms as by the specifics of the teacher’s activity and psychology.

Fourthly, this is the ethics of administrative and business relations between the teacher and the governing structures, which prescribes certain “rules of the game” for both parties, aimed at optimizing the management of the education system.

The proposed approach does not claim to be the "ultimate truth", but it allows us to pose and consider the most important problems of pedagogical culture, such as the ethical and psychological aspects of a teacher's professional activity. To do this, first of all, it is necessary to identify the specifics of this activity.

Principles of professional ethics

Professional ethics governs the relationship of people in business communication. Professional ethics are based on certain norms, requirements and principles.

Principles are abstract, generalized ideas that enable those who rely on them to correctly shape their behavior, their actions in the business sphere. Principles give specific employee in any organization, a conceptual ethical platform for decisions, actions, actions, interactions, etc.

The order of the considered ethical principles is not determined by their significance. The essence of the first principle comes from the so-called gold standard: “Within the framework of your official position, never allow in relation to your subordinates, to management, to colleagues of your official position, never to allow in relation to your subordinates, to management, to colleagues of your official level, to customers, etc. actions that you would not want to see in relation to yourself.

The second principle: justice is needed in providing employees with the resources necessary for their performance (cash, raw materials, material, etc.). The third principle requires the obligatory correction of an ethical violation, regardless of when and by whom it was committed.

The fourth principle is the principle of maximum progress: the official behavior and actions of an employee are recognized as ethical if they contribute to the development of the organization (or its divisions) from a moral point of view.

The fifth principle is the principle of minimum progress, according to which the actions of an employee or organization as a whole are ethical if they at least do not violate ethical standards.

The sixth principle: ethical is the tolerant attitude of the employees of the organization to the moral principles, traditions, etc. that take place in other organizations, regions, countries.

The seventh principle recommends a reasonable combination of individual relativism and ethical relativism with the requirements of universal (universal) ethics. The eighth principle: the individual and the collective principle are equally recognized as the basis for the development and decision-making in business relations.

The ninth principle: you should not be afraid to have your own opinion when solving any official issues. However, nonconformism as a personality trait should be manifested within reasonable limits.

The tenth principle is no violence; “pressure” on subordinates, expressed in various forms, for example, in an orderly, command manner of conducting an official conversation.

The eleventh principle is the constancy of impact, which is expressed in the fact that ethical standards can be introduced into the life of the organization not by a one-time order, but only with the help of ongoing efforts on the part of both the manager and ordinary employees.

The twelfth principle is to take into account the strength of possible counteraction when influencing (on a team, individual employee, consumer, etc.). The fact is that, recognizing the value and necessity of ethical norms in theory, many workers, faced with them in practical everyday work, for one reason or another, begin to oppose them.

The thirteenth principle is the expediency of advancing with trust - the employee's sense of responsibility, his competence, his sense of duty, etc.

The fourteenth principle strongly recommends striving for non-conflict. Although the conflict in the business sphere has not only dysfunctional, but also functional consequences, nevertheless, conflict is a fertile ground for ethical violations.

The fifteenth principle is freedom that does not restrict the freedom of others; usually this principle, although in an implicit form, is due to job descriptions.

The sixteenth principle: the employee must not only act ethically himself, but also promote the same behavior of his colleagues.

Seventeenth principle: do not criticize a competitor. This means not only a competing organization, but also an “internal competitor” - a team of another department, a colleague in which one can “see” a competitor.

These principles should serve as the basis for the development by each employee of any company of his own personal ethical system.

The professional ethics of a journalist is not legally fixed, but accepted in the journalistic environment and supported by the power of public opinion, professional and creative organizations, moral prescriptions - the principles, norms and rules of the moral behavior of a journalist.

Journalistic ethics extends to the decision-making process in specific situations, but here, too, the choice must be consistent with fundamental rules and principles. For journalists and other information workers, this means making choices that are consistent with the rules and principles of the profession, as enshrined in a code of ethics. In practice, moral choice presupposes a certain freedom in decision-making, in which gradations of right and wrong are possible, since it is impossible to find a moral decision that is suitable for all cases of life. Some ethical norms and principles are codified in law, in which case the state requires its citizens to follow a specific rule or principle in their decision-making process.

Thus, a worker in journalism, a profession where there are so many standardized techniques but so few absolute rules, has a range of possible solutions, choosing between an ethical and unethical act. Due to this circumstance, we still cannot agree on what, in fact, constitutes the "ethical" behavior of a journalist.

The pursuit of truth is a moral imperative for most civilized people, but many journalists, even highly moral ones, have allowed lies in the service, they claimed, of the public good. Defenders of journalistic ethics usually make a distinction between the fundamental principles of morality and their application in everyday situations, when moral choices have to be made in the face of time pressure and lack of opportunity to analyze the circumstances.

In the presence of strict principles, ethical norms are already less regulated, and the rules of a journalist's behavior are determined almost for each specific case. It is important to keep this in mind, firstly, so that journalists can distinguish ethical norms from legal norms and, secondly, so that they understand that the ethical (or unethical) behavior of their behavior is determined not on the basis of general principles, but situationally, within a fairly broad framework. This does not mean that ethical decisions are voluntaristic and that ethics is relative, relative and subjective.

This only means that a journalist, knowing the principles of ethics, must have a highly developed moral consciousness and experience in moral behavior, which in each specific case for himself and in relation to his colleagues will help him decide what and how ethical or unethical. Therefore, the "court of honor" of journalism must take into account specific circumstances, subtly understand the nuances of relations between people. Ethical analysis and introspection are mandatory. Although very complex, a component of journalistic practice.

Professional Ethics Rule

Society is increasingly aware that the rule of law is not only a set of competent civilized laws, but also the possibility of their implementation, as well as the ability of the population to exercise their rights. And this is not possible without professional lawyers, in particular lawyers, who are called upon to assist citizens and legal entities.

As A. Boikov rightly wrote: “The professional maturity of a specialist cannot be characterized only by a certain amount knowledge, skills, skills, it also includes the corresponding level of moral development of the individual, mastering the moral requirements of this profession. Therefore, one of the most important issues of advocacy is the issue of professional ethics of a lawyer.

In the activities of a lawyer, more often and more acutely than in any other activity of a lawyer, situations arise, the resolution of which depends on the observance of not only legal, but also moral, ethical standards.

The rules of professional ethics of a lawyer are a set of provisions that define the requirements for the personality of a lawyer and his behavior in the performance of professional duties, as well as in relationships with clients, colleagues, bodies of lawyer self-government, state bodies, institutions and officials, public and other organizations.

In accordance with the Rules, a lawyer must comply with the law and adhere to the norms of professional morality, constantly maintaining the honor and dignity of his profession as a participant in the administration of justice and a public figure, as well as personal honor and dignity. He should take care of the prestige of his profession and increase its role in society.

A lawyer must adhere to the customs and traditions that have developed in the legal profession, the content of which corresponds to the general ideals and principles of morality in society. Violation of the rules of professional ethics entails disciplinary liability.

The legal profession is a free profession based on the rule of law, trust and independence. The lawyer is completely independent in his professional activity. It is prohibited to interfere in the professional activities of a lawyer.

A lawyer performs professional duties to protect the legal rights and interests of clients freely and independently, with dignity and tact, honestly, diligently and confidentially.

The rules of professional ethics call on a lawyer to ensure the dignity of the profession and personal dignity, which consists in a special moral attitude of the lawyer towards himself, which determines the appropriate attitude towards him from the society.

The approval and maintenance of the dignity of a lawyer presupposes the commission of appropriate moral acts and the non-commission of acts that degrade his dignity. Degrading professional dignity is considered such behavior of a lawyer that discredits his high rank and undermines public confidence in the legal profession.

The rules establish requirements for a lawyer, which he must comply with in order to maintain honor and dignity. The rules of professional ethics are also aimed at regulating the relationship of a lawyer with colleagues and clients.

Of particular importance are the rules that a lawyer must adhere to in dealing with clients. A lawyer may not refuse to accept an assignment to a person who has applied for legal assistance without sufficient grounds. The rules of professional ethics provide for cases in which a lawyer must refuse to accept an assignment and conduct a case.

In relations with law enforcement and other state bodies and officials, public and other organizations, with lawyers' self-government bodies and the qualification commission, a lawyer must also adhere to the ethical standards set forth in the Rules.

The rules of professional ethics are a kind of guideline in a complex and multifaceted advocacy activity, full of moral conflicts and contradictions. Some of these moral norms have become legal provisions of an imperative nature.

Modern professional ethics

Modern ethics is faced with a rather difficult situation in which many traditional moral values ​​have been revised. Traditions, in which the basis of initial moral principles was seen in many respects, often turned out to be destroyed. They have lost their significance in connection with the global processes developing in society and the rapid pace of change in production, its reorientation towards mass consumption. As a result, a situation arose in which opposing moral principles appeared as equally justified, equally derivable from reason. This, according to A. McIntyre, led to the fact that rational arguments in morality were mainly used to prove the theses that those who cited these arguments already had in advance.

This, on the one hand, led to an anti-normative turn in ethics, expressed in the desire to proclaim individual person a full-fledged and self-sufficient subject of moral requirements, to lay on him the entire burden of responsibility for independently made decisions. The anti-normative tendency is represented in the ideas of F. Nietzsche, in existentialism, in postmodern philosophy. On the other hand, there was a desire to limit the area of ​​ethics to a fairly narrow range of issues related to the formulation of such rules of conduct that can be accepted by people with different life orientations, with different understanding of the goals of human existence, the ideals of self-improvement. As a result, the category of good, traditional for ethics, turned out to be, as it were, taken out of the bounds of morality, and the latter began to develop mainly as an ethics of rules. In line with this trend, the theme of human rights is being further developed, new attempts are being made to build ethics as a theory of justice. One such attempt is presented in the book by J. Rawls "The Theory of Justice".

New scientific discoveries and new technologies gave a powerful boost to the development of applied ethics. In the XX century. many new professional codes of morality were developed, business ethics, bioethics, the ethics of a lawyer, a media worker, etc. were developed. Scientists, doctors, philosophers began to discuss such problems as organ transplantation, euthanasia, the creation of transgenic animals, human cloning. Man, to a much greater extent than before, felt his responsibility for the development of all life on Earth and began to discuss these problems not only from the point of view of his own survival interests, but also from the point of view of recognizing the intrinsic value of the fact of life, the fact of existence as such (Schweitzer, moral realism).

An important step, representing a reaction to the current situation in the development of society, was an attempt to understand morality in a constructive way, to present it as an endless discourse in its continuation, aimed at developing solutions acceptable to all its participants. This is developed in the works of K.O. Apel, J. Habermas, R. Alexi and others. The ethics of discourse is directed against antinormativity, it tries to develop common guidelines that can unite people in the fight against global threats facing humanity.

An undoubted achievement of modern ethics has been the identification of the weaknesses of the utilitarian theory, the formulation of the thesis that some basic human rights should be understood precisely in the absolute sense as values ​​not directly related to the question of the public good. They must be observed even when it does not lead to an increase in public goods.

One of the problems that remains as relevant in modern ethics as in the ethics of past years is the problem of substantiating the initial moral principle, the search for an answer to the question of what can be the basis of morality, whether moral judgments can be considered in as true or false, respectively - is it possible to specify any value criterion for determining this? A rather influential group of philosophers denies the possibility of considering normative judgments as those that can be considered true or false. These are, first of all, philosophers who develop the approach of logical positivism in ethics. They believe that so-called descriptive (descriptive) judgments have nothing to do with normative (prescriptive) judgments. The latter express, from their point of view, only the will of the speaker and therefore, unlike judgments of the first type, they cannot be evaluated in terms of logical truth or falsehood. One of the classic variants of this approach was the so-called emotivism (A. Ayer). Emotivists believe that moral judgments do not have any truth, but simply convey the emotions of the speaker. These emotions affect the listener in terms of forming his desire to take the side of the speaker, caused by emotional resonance. Other philosophers of this group generally abandon the task of finding the original meaning of moral judgments and put forward as the goal of theoretical ethics only a logical analysis of the connection between individual judgments, aimed at achieving their consistency (R. Hear, R. Bandt). Nevertheless, even analytical philosophers, who declared the analysis of the logical connection of moral judgments as the main task of theoretical ethics, still usually proceed from the fact that the judgments themselves have some basis. They can be based on historical intuitions, on the rational desires of individual individuals, but this already goes beyond the competence of theoretical ethics as a science.

A number of authors note the formalism of such a position and seek to soften it somehow. So V. Franken, R. Holmes say that our very initial understanding of morality will also determine whether some judgments contradict others or not. R. Holmes believes that the introduction of a specific value position in the definition of morality is unlawful. However, he allows for "the possibility of including some real content (for example, a reference to a public good) and an idea of ​​the sources of morality." Such a position presupposes going beyond the limits of the logical analysis of moral statements, but despite the desire to overcome formalism (Holmes himself calls his position and the position of V. Frankena substantialist), it still remains too abstract. Explaining why the individual nevertheless behaves as a moral subject, R. Holmes says: “The very interest that prompts the individual to adhere to a normal and orderly life should also prompt him to create and maintain the conditions under which such a life is possible.” Probably, no one will object that such a definition (and at the same time the justification of morality) is reasonable. But it leaves many questions: for example, what does a normal and orderly life really consist of (what desires can and should be encouraged, and which should be limited), to what extent the individual is really interested in maintaining the general conditions of a normal life, why, let's say, sacrifice your life for the sake of your homeland, if you yourself don't see its prosperity anyway (a question asked by Lorenzo Valla)? Apparently, such questions give rise to the desire of some thinkers not only to point out the limited possibilities of ethical theory, but also to completely abandon the procedure for substantiating morality. A. Schopenhauer first expressed the idea that the rational justification of morality undermines the fundamental nature of its principles. This position has some support in modern Russian ethics.

Other philosophers believe that the procedure for substantiating morality still has a positive value, the foundations of morality can be found in reasonable self-limitation of interests, in historical tradition, common sense, corrected by scientific thinking.

In order to give a positive answer to the question about the prospects for the justification of morality, it is necessary, first of all, to distinguish between the principles of the ethics of duty and the ethics of virtues. In Christian ethics, which can be called the ethics of duty, of course, there is an idea of ​​morality as the highest absolute value. The priority of the moral motive implies the same attitude towards different people regardless of their achievements in practical life. This is the ethic of strict limitations and universal love. One of the ways to substantiate it is an attempt to derive morality from a person's ability to universalize his behavior, the idea of ​​what would happen if everyone acted the same way as I am going to do. This attempt was most developed in Kantian ethics and continues in modern ethical discussions. However, in contrast to Kant's approach, in modern ethics self-interest is not rigidly opposed to moral faculty, and universalization is not seen as something that creates moral faculty from the mind itself, but simply as a control procedure used to test various expedient rules of behavior against their common acceptability.

However, such an idea of ​​morality, in which it is considered, first of all, as a means of controlling behavior, carried out from the point of view of not allowing violations of the dignity of other people, not grossly trampling on their interests, that is, not using another person only as a means for realizing one's own interest (which in a rough form can be expressed in extreme forms of exploitation, slavery, zombification in someone's political interests through the use of dirty political technologies) is not enough. There is a need to consider morality more broadly, in connection with its influence on the quality of performance of all those types of social activities in which the person is actually involved. In this case, it again becomes necessary to talk about virtues in the ancient tradition, that is, in connection with a sign of perfection in the performance of a certain social function. The difference between the ethics of duty and the ethics of virtues is very important, because the principles on which these types of moral theory are based turn out to be contradictory to a certain extent, and they have a different degree of categoricalness. The ethics of duty gravitates towards an absolute form of expression of its principles. In it, a person is always considered as the highest value, all people are equal in their dignity, regardless of their practical achievements.

These achievements themselves turn out to be insignificant when compared with eternity, God, and that is why a person necessarily occupies the position of a “slave” in such ethics. If all slaves are before God, the real difference between the slave and the master turns out to be insignificant. Such an affirmation looks like a form of affirmation of human dignity, despite the fact that a person seems to voluntarily take on the role of a slave here, the role of a lower being, relying in everything on the grace of a deity. But, as already mentioned, such a statement of the equal dignity of all people in the absolute sense is not enough to morally encourage their practical social activity. In the ethics of virtues, a person, as it were, lays claim to the divine. Already in Aristotle, in his highest intellectual virtues, he becomes like a deity.

This means that the ethics of the virtues allows for different degrees of perfection, and not just perfection in the ability to control one’s thoughts, overcome the craving for sin (a task that is also set in the ethics of duty), but also perfection in the ability to perform the social function that a person undertakes to perform. . This introduces relativity into the moral assessment of what a person is as a person, i.e., in the ethics of virtues, a different moral attitude towards different people is allowed, because their dignity in this type of ethics depends on the specific character traits of people and their achievements in practical life. . Moral qualities are correlated here with various social abilities and appear as very differentiated.

Fundamentally different types of moral motivation are associated with the ethics of duty and the ethics of virtues.

In cases where the moral motive manifests itself most clearly, when it does not merge with other social motives of activity, the external situation serves as an incentive for the beginning of moral activity. At the same time, behavior is fundamentally different from that which develops on the basis of the usual sequence: need-interest-goal. For example, if a person rushes to save a drowning man, he does this not because he has previously experienced some emotional stress, similar to, say, a feeling of hunger, but simply because he understands or intuitively feels that the subsequent life with a sense of unfulfilled duty will represent for him torment. Thus, behavior is based here on the anticipation of strong negative emotions associated with the idea of ​​a violation of a moral requirement and the desire to avoid them. However, the need to perform such selfless actions, in which the features of the ethics of duty are most manifest, is relatively rare. Revealing the essence of the moral motive, it is necessary to explain not only the fear of torment due to unfulfilled duty or remorse, but also the positive direction of long-term activity of behavior, which inevitably manifests itself when it comes to one's own good. It is clear that the rationale for the need for such behavior is carried out not in some extraordinary circumstances, and for its determination, not an episodic, but a long-term goal is needed. Such a goal can be realized only in connection with the general ideas of the individual about the happiness of life, about the whole nature of his relationships with other people.

Is it possible to reduce morality only to the restrictions that follow from the rule of universalization, to behavior based on reason, freed from emotions that interfere with sober reasoning? Certainly not. It has been known since the time of Aristotle that without emotion there is no moral action.

But if strictly defined emotions of compassion, love, remorse of conscience are manifested in the ethics of duty, in the ethics of virtues the realization of moral qualities is accompanied by numerous positive emotions of a non-moral nature. This happens because there is a combination of moral and other pragmatic motives of being. A person, performing positive moral actions in accordance with his virtues of character, experiences positive emotional states. But positive motivation in this case is introduced into a morally approved action not from some special moral, but from all the higher social needs of the individual. At the same time, the orientation of behavior towards moral values ​​enhances emotional self-awareness in the process of satisfying non-moral needs. For example, the joy of creativity in socially significant activities is higher than the joy of creativity in a simple game, because in the first case, a person sees in the moral criteria of society a confirmation of the real complexity, sometimes even the uniqueness of the tasks he solves. This means the enrichment of some motives of activity by others. Considering such a combination and enrichment of some motives of behavior by others, it is quite possible to explain why a person has a personal interest in being moral, i.e., being moral not only for society, but also for himself.

In the ethics of duty, the issue is more complicated. Due to the fact that a person is taken here regardless of his social functions, good acquires an absolute character and causes the theoretician to desire to present it as an initial and rationally indefinable category for building the entire ethical system.

The absolute, indeed, cannot be excluded from the sphere of morality and cannot be ignored by theoretical thought that wants to free a person from the burden of phenomena that are incomprehensible to him and not always pleasant for him. In practical terms, proper behavior implies a mechanism of conscience, which is cultivated as a reaction imposed by society on an individual to a violation of moral requirements. In the manifestation of a strong negative reaction of the subconscious to the assumption of a violation of the requirements of morality, in essence, something absolute is already contained. But in critical periods of the development of society, when mass sacrificial behavior is required, automatic reactions of the subconscious and remorse alone are not enough. From the point of view of common sense and the theory based on it, it is very difficult to explain why it is necessary to give one's life for others. But then it is very difficult to give a personal meaning to such a sacrificial act only on the basis of a scientific explanation of the fact that this is necessary, say, for the survival of the family. However, the practice of social life requires such actions, and, in this sense, produces the need to strengthen the moral motives aimed at this kind of behavior, say, at the expense of the idea of ​​God, the hope for a posthumous reward, etc.

Thus, the rather popular absolutist approach in ethics is in many ways an expression of the practical need to strengthen the moral motives of behavior and a reflection of the fact that morality really exists, despite the fact that, from the point of view of common sense, a person seems to be unable to act against his own interest. But the prevalence of absolutist ideas in ethics, the assertions that the first principle of morality cannot be substantiated, rather testify not to the impotence of the theory, but to the imperfection of the society in which we live. Creation of a political organization that excludes wars and solves food problems based on new energy and technology, as seen, for example, by Vernadsky (the transition to autotrophic humanity associated with the production of artificial protein), will make it possible to humanize social life to such an extent that the ethics of duty, with its universalism and strict prohibitions on the use of man as a means, will actually turn out to be unnecessary by virtue of specific political and legal guarantees of the existence of man and all other living beings. In the ethics of virtues, the necessity of orienting personal motives of activity towards moral values ​​can be justified without appealing to abstract metaphysical entities, without the illusory doubling of the world necessary to give moral motives the status of being of absolute significance. This is one of the manifestations of real humanism, since it removes the alienation caused by the fact that external, incomprehensible principles of behavior are imposed on a person.

What has been said, however, does not mean that the ethics of duty becomes unnecessary as such. It is just that its scope is shrinking, and the moral principles developed within the theoretical approaches of the ethics of duty are becoming important for the development of the rules of law, in particular, in substantiating the concept of human rights. In modern ethics, the approaches developed in the ethics of duty, attempts to derive morality from a person’s ability to mentally universalize his behavior, are most of all used to defend the ideas of liberalism, the basis of which is the desire to create a society in which the individual could best satisfy his interest, not conflicting with the interests of others.

Virtue ethics correlates with communitarian approaches, which assume that personal happiness is impossible without making concern for society the subject of one's own aspirations, one's personal desires. The ethics of duty, on the contrary, serves as the basis for the development of liberal thought, the development of general rules acceptable to all, independent of individual life orientations. Communitarists say that the subject of morality should be not only the general rules of behavior, but also the standards of excellence for everyone in the type of activity that he actually performs. They draw attention to the connection of morality with a certain local cultural tradition, arguing that without such a connection, morality will simply disappear, and human society will disintegrate.

It seems that in order to solve the urgent problems of modern ethics, it is necessary to combine different principles, including - to look for ways to combine the absolute principles of the ethics of duty and the relative principles of the ethics of virtues, the ideology of liberalism and communitarianism. Arguing from the standpoint of the priority of an individual, it would be, for example, very difficult to explain the duty to future generations, to understand the natural desire of each person to preserve a good memory of himself among his descendants.

Professional ethics of a journalist

Many countries around the world have journalistic codes. At a regular consultative meeting of international and regional journalistic organizations, the so-called "International Principles of Journalistic Ethics" were adopted. Above all, they require media professionals to disseminate news truthfully and honestly and ensure people's right to freedom of expression and free access to information. Professional and ethical standards developed by the world journalistic community help to make objective decisions, determine the corridor within which your free creative space is located.

Media Law and Ethics: Similarities and Differences

Law is a universal regulator penetrating into all spheres of life. Information law is a branch of legislation dealing with information and informatization issues.

Journalistic jurisprudence is a scientific academic discipline. Media law is a wide branched set of norms related to the media, media law is included in the system of journalistic theory and education:

1. connects with the fundamental doctrine of the principles and social roles of the press, the structure of the worldview of a journalist, etc. Forms of existence of law: norms and regulations, legal relations, legal consciousness of people.
2. Law forms the standards of behavior of a correspondent, editor; predetermines the choice of certain means of labor. Legal training: legal consciousness - knowledge of the norms - methods of activity.

Morality is the rules of moral behavior, a system of norms that define the duties of a person in relation to society and other people. Ethics is the doctrine of morality, morality as one of the forms of social consciousness. Professional morality is a modification of public morality. Professional ethics is a science that studies the professional specifics of morality. Journalistic morality is both a form of social consciousness, and the subjective state of the individual, and a real social attitude. The moral regulation of the behavior of a journalist is carried out at the level of principle and norm.

Journalistic codes are a reflection of the ethics of a journalist as a kind of code of norms and rules of professional morality.

International organization of journalists. Their code says that a journalist must protect the dignity of his profession and must not resort to unworthy means and methods of obtaining information.

Council on Professional Ethics and Law.

A set of deontological (ethical) rules - the Code of Professional Ethics of the Soviet Journalist, councils on professional ethics and law were created in the republics and territories. The Moscow Charter of Journalists was signed by a group of well-known editors.

There are 10 articles in the Code. The main thing: a journalist disseminates only reliable information, does not use the profession for personal purposes, recognizes the jurisdiction only of his colleagues, cannot work in politics and power, loses his status by taking up arms.

Here is what the codes say about the interaction of journalism with those with whom it has to work.

Journalist - audience:

1. protect the freedom of the press in every possible way;
2. respect the right of people to know the truth (provide them with objective and truthful information about reality in a timely manner, clearly separating facts from opinions; counteract the deliberate concealment of socially significant information and the dissemination of deliberately false data);
3. respect people's right to their own opinion;
4. respect the moral values ​​and cultural standards of the audience (do not allow in their works to savor the details of crimes, indulge in vice, not offend, including involuntarily, the national, religious, moral feelings of a person);
5. Strengthen people's trust in the media (facilitate open dialogue with the audience, provide opportunities to respond to criticism, promptly correct significant errors, etc.).

Journalist - source of information:

Use only decent and lawful actions when working with sources to obtain information (methods of illegal obtaining of documents, eavesdropping, "hidden camera", "hidden recording" are used in the most exceptional cases, after a thorough discussion, only under such circumstances that threaten the public welfare or people's lives)
respect the rights of individuals and legal entities to refuse to provide information (with the exception of situations where the obligation to provide information is provided by law. But more on that below.);
indicate sources of information in the materials (if there are no serious reasons, keep them secret);
maintain professional secrecy regarding the source of information (if there are good reasons for anonymity);
respect the confidentiality agreed upon when receiving information.

Journalist is a hero:

Take care of the impartiality of their publications (do not write about people with whom relations can be interpreted as selfish or biased);
respect as a person a person who has become the object of professional journalistic attention (show correctness, tact, restraint in communicating with him);
respect the human right to privacy (not to intrude into it without the consent of the future hero - except in cases where the hero is a public person, and his private life is of undoubted public interest);
be true to reality, do not distort the life of the hero in the material (any attempt to embellish or denigrate it will complicate his relationship with acquaintances and in their eyes discredit journalism in general and the author of the publication in particular);
refrain from any disparaging remarks or hints in the materials that can humiliate a person (race or skin color, nationality, religion, illness, physical disabilities, ironic play on his name, surname, details of appearance, mention of him as a criminal, if this is not established court).

Journalist - colleagues:

Respect the common interests and goals of the journalistic community (prefer them over the interests and goals of political or public organizations; professional solidarity);
take care of the prestige of the profession (do not allow criminal actions, do not accept gifts, services, privileges that compromise the moral purity of a journalist, do not use your official position for personal purposes, do not refuse to publish and do not write custom materials for the sake of someone's selfish interests );
come to the aid of colleagues who find themselves in a difficult situation or in trouble;
respect the standards of service relations (discipline and creative initiative, competition and mutual assistance, maintaining a decent moral climate in the editorial office);
respect other people's and defend their own copyrights, respect the right of a colleague to refuse to complete a task if it contradicts his personal beliefs and principles.

Journalist - power:

Show respect for authority social institution;
to provide information support to power structures (to carry out direct and feedback between them and the people);
uphold the right of the public to access information about the activities of power structures;
expose the abuses and misdeeds of persons working in power structures, take care of the accuracy and evidence of criticism;
defend the right of journalism to be independent from the authorities (this is the most important condition for the responsible control of society over the activities of power structures);
to refute with facts the statements of politicians that do not correspond to reality.

As you understand, moral principles are not an order, not a law, and journalists are divided into those who follow them and those who neglect them. We hope that all of you are going to comply with them, however, we recall that they are advisory in nature. But there are norms that a journalist must comply with, regardless of whether he likes them or not.

Professional ethics of an employee of the internal affairs bodies

The moral meaning of the Code of Professional Ethics for an employee of the internal affairs bodies of the Russian Federation can be analyzed by reading in detail each provision of this document.

I consider it necessary to single out from the Code the fundamental principles that directly reveal the moral meaning and significance of this document.

Moral foundations of service in the internal affairs bodies Every citizen of the Russian Federation who joins the ranks of employees of the internal affairs bodies devotes his life to fulfilling the Duty of selfless service to the Fatherland and protecting noble social ideals: freedom, democracy, the triumph of law and order.

The highest moral meaning of the official activity of an employee is the protection of a person, his life and health, honor and personal dignity, inalienable rights and freedoms.

An employee of the internal affairs bodies, realizing personal responsibility for the historical fate of the Fatherland, considers it his duty to protect and increase the fundamental moral values:

Citizenship - as devotion to the Russian Federation, awareness of the unity of rights, freedoms and duties of a person and a citizen;
- statehood - as a statement of the idea of ​​a legal, democratic, strong, indivisible Russian state;
- patriotism - as a deep and sublime feeling of love for the Motherland, loyalty to the Oath of an employee of the internal affairs bodies of the Russian Federation, the chosen profession and official duty.

Also in this issue the moral principles of service in the internal affairs bodies should also be indicated.

The service activity of an employee of the internal affairs bodies is carried out in accordance with the moral principles:

Humanism, proclaiming a person, his life and health as the highest values, the protection of which is the meaning and moral content of law enforcement;
- legality, which determines the recognition by the employee of the rule of law;
- objectivity, expressed in impartiality and lack of bias in making official decisions;
- justice, meaning the correspondence of the measure of punishment to the nature and gravity of the misconduct or offense;
- tolerance, which consists in a respectful, tolerant attitude towards people, taking into account socio-historical, religious, ethnic traditions and customs.

Moral obligations of an employee of the internal affairs bodies

Be intolerant of any action that offends human dignity, causes pain and suffering, constitutes torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; to be courageous and fearless in the face of danger in the suppression of offenses, the elimination of the consequences of accidents and natural disasters, as well as in any situation requiring the saving of life and health of people; show firmness and intransigence in the fight against criminals, using only legal and highly moral means to achieve the set goals; in situations of moral choice, follow the ethical principle: a person is always a moral goal, but never a means; be guided in professional activities and communication by the "golden rule" of morality: treat people, your comrades, colleagues the way you would like them to treat you.

To explain the moral principles of the Law of the Russian Federation No. 1026-1 "On the Police", you need to familiarize yourself with the text of this document and make the main excerpts from it.

It is worth noting that Article 1 of the Law "On Police" reveals such important concept like the police in the Russian Federation.

The police in the Russian Federation is a system of state executive bodies designed to protect the life, health, rights and freedoms of citizens, property, the interests of society and the state from criminal and other unlawful encroachments and endowed with the right to use coercive measures within the limits established by this Law and other federal laws .

Thus, Article 1 of this law reveals the most important, fundamental principle, pursuing moral goals and ideas aimed at protecting the interests of citizens and the state.

It is also necessary to note Article 3 of this law, which reveals the basic principles of police activity, namely: police activity is built in accordance with the principles of respect for the rights and freedoms of man and citizen, legality, humanism, publicity.

Also, most fully, the moral principles and principles of police activity are reflected in Article 5 of this Law:

The police protect the rights and freedoms of man and citizen, regardless of gender, race, nationality, language, origin, property and official status, place of residence, attitude to religion, beliefs, belonging to public associations, as well as other circumstances.
- The police are prohibited from resorting to torture, violence, other cruel or degrading treatment.
- Any restriction of citizens in their rights and freedoms by the police is permissible only on the grounds and in the manner expressly provided for by law.
- In all cases of restriction of the rights and freedoms of a citizen, a police officer is obliged to explain to him the basis and reason for such restriction, as well as his rights and obligations arising in connection with this.
- The police provide an opportunity for detainees to exercise their statutory right to legal assistance; informs, at their request (and in the case of detention of minors - without fail) about the detention of their relatives, the administration at the place of work or study; if necessary, take measures to provide them with first aid, as well as to eliminate the danger to someone's life, health or property resulting from the detention of these persons.
- The police have no right to collect, store, use and disseminate information about the private life of a person without his consent, except in cases provided for federal law.
- The police are obliged to provide a person with the opportunity to get acquainted with documents and materials that directly affect his rights and freedoms, unless otherwise provided by federal law.

Thus, Articles 1 to 5 adequately reveal the moral principles of this Law and inform about the direct purpose of the police in the Russian Federation.

Scientific professional ethics

There are a number of concepts associated with the concept of "ethics", of a more particular kind, such as: "scientific ethics", "religious ethics", "professional ethics". The concept of "scientific ethics" is ambiguous. This concept is usually understood as the desire of a person to rely in his moral activity on a deeper, scientific knowledge of reality. And with this meaning of the concept of "scientific ethics" one can and should agree. However, the very "scientific" in ethics is different than in the natural sciences. "Scientific" in ethics does not take a strictly formalized, deductive or mathematical form, nor is it strictly substantiated through experience; the inductive method also has its limits here.

Remarkably about this property of ethical knowledge, L.N. Tolstoy. He wrote: “In the realm of morality, an amazing, too little noticed phenomenon is taking place.

If I tell a person who did not know this what I know from geology, astronomy, history, physics, mathematics, this person will receive completely new information, and will never say to me: “What is new here? Everyone knows this, and I have known it for a long time.” But communicate to a person the highest, most clear, concise way, in the way that it has never been expressed, the expressed moral truth - every ordinary person, especially one who is not interested in moral questions, or even more so one to whom this moral truth expressed by you , not by wool, will certainly say: “But who doesn’t know this? This has long been known and said." It really seems to him that this is a long time ago and that is exactly what was said. Only those for whom moral truths are important and dear know how important, precious and with what lengthy labor the clarification, simplification of moral truth is achieved - its transition from a vague, indefinite conscious assumption, desire, from indefinite, incoherent expressions into a firm and definite expression, inevitably requiring corresponding actions.

The concept of "scientific ethics" is often associated with some special concept of morality based on a particular science. Such ethics are considered to be based on scientifically verified facts and use scientific methodology.

An example of such a "scientific ethics" can be "naturalistic ethics", "built" on natural facts, such as: human instincts, his natural desire for pleasure, his irrational will to live, to power. Such ethics was the ethics of the social Darwinists, whose representatives were C. Darwin, P.A. Kropotkin and others.

P.A. Kropotkin in his book "Ethics" noted that "the very concepts of good and evil and our conclusions about the "Higher Good" are borrowed from the life of nature." There is an instinctive struggle between species and an instinctive mutual assistance among species, which is the basis of morality. The instinct of mutual sympathy is most fully manifested in social animals, man. Modern biology, in particular ethology, has greatly expanded human understanding of animal behavior. However, she retained the idea of ​​the natural factors of morality, often exaggerating their role. Examples here are the concepts of K. Lorentz, V.P. Efroimson, G. Selye and others.

Marxist ethics also considered itself scientific, which derived morality from objective social relations, considered it as a specific form of consciousness or a special way of mastering reality, which has a class basis. Specific scientific ethics is developed by neopositivism, which believes that the subject of scientific ethics can only be the language of morality and ethics, and not morality itself. This ethics is called "metaethics".

There are also objections to the concepts of "scientific ethics". The most serious criticism is presented by emotivism as one of the directions of the neopositivist theory of morality. The main argument of emotivism concerns the essence of moral value judgments. It is here argued that all value judgments are prescriptions and not descriptions, i.e. they express our subjective attitudes or emotions, and do not denote something objective. However, this point of view does not explain the possibility of moral argumentation, disputes - then they simply become meaningless, because all judgments are equivalent. Entire layers of being, such as natural and social sphere are "depreciated".

Ethical doctrines that defend the thesis of the descriptiveness of value judgments, i.e. that they describe something objective in morality are more plausible. They explain more moral phenomena and should be given preference. Emotivism leads to relativism and nihilism as ethical teachings, arguing that in the sphere of morality everything is relative, and that there are no absolute, universal values ​​of goodness.

So, the concept of "scientific ethics" is not empty or meaningless. Ethics can and should include scientific facts, methods, theories, although their possibilities here are limited. In ethics, the role of feelings, prescriptive judgments, self-assessments is great.

Features of professional ethics

The name "professional ethics" speaks for itself. It deals with practices designed to solve the moral problems that arise in a particular profession. Three types of problems can be distinguished here. The first one is related to the need to concretize universal moral norms in relation to the conditions of professional activity. For example, the status of a member of the military or law enforcement organizations implies their right to use violence, which cannot be unlimited. In the same way, a journalist who has access to socially dangerous information has the right to hide or distort it, but to what extent is this right permissible from the point of view of the public good, and how can abuse be avoided? The measure and scope of such deviations from generally accepted ideas about morality is called upon to develop this type of ethics. Secondly, it considers the requirements that exist within the profession and bind their carriers with special, business relations. Thirdly, she talks about the correspondence between the values ​​of the profession and the interests of society itself, and in this perspective comes to the problem of correlation social responsibility and professional debt.

Researchers note that professional ethics is the oldest of all three areas. It is traditionally believed that the first set of professional rules was compiled by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (460-370 BC), which is associated with the separation of medicine into a separate science. In fairness, it should be noted that he did not formulate the doctor's oath, but rather summarized the various vows that were given by the Greek priests of the god of healing Asclepius. This oath became the prototype of numerous codes of doctors that exist in different countries. Further, the history of professional ethics can be traced as unifying documents, charters and oaths of various corporations. Thus, trade unions were strong enough in ancient Rome. In the Middle Ages, the charters and codes of craft workshops, monastic communities, as well as knightly orders attracted attention. The latter are perhaps the most revealing in this regard, as they emphasize the exceptional, divine significance of their service. It is no coincidence that the authorship of the charter and oath of the very first knightly order of the Templars (1118) belongs to the famous medieval philosopher Bernard of Clairvaux (1091-1153). However, the mass distribution of codes of professional ethics began in the second half of the 20th century, when professionalism began to be considered one of the highest values ​​of social practice. Accordingly, there was also a theoretical reflection on this phenomenon.

What are the most important features of professional ethics? First, it is expressed in the form of requirements addressed to representatives of this profession. From this follows its normative image, enshrined in the form of beautifully formulated codes-declarations. As a rule, they are small documents containing a call to correspond to the high vocation of the profession. The appearance of these documents indicates that the carriers of the profession began to realize themselves as a single community pursuing certain goals and meeting high social standards.

Secondly, documents on professional ethics are filled with the conviction that the values ​​professed by it are completely obvious and follow from a simple analysis of the activities of the most prominent representatives of this kind of activity. It cannot be otherwise, for the codes themselves are designed in the style of a message to people who have been given the great honor to engage in such a significant public service. From here we can often read about the principles of responsibility, objectivity, high competence, openness to criticism, goodwill, philanthropy, indifference, and the need for continuous improvement of professional skills. Nowhere is a decoding of these values ​​given, because it seems that they are intuitively understandable to every member of society. In addition to them, you can always find references to what is professional evil, and can in no way be tolerated in terms of these values. For example, refusal to provide assistance, use of one's official position, non-observance of professional secrecy, substitution of competence for personal opinion, etc.

Another important feature of the professional understanding of morality is connected with the previous circumstance. This style of ethics confers the highest status on the activities it regulates. The profession whose values ​​it is called upon to protect - a doctor, a scientist, a teacher, a lawyer - is recognized as the most exalted of all existing ones, and its representatives themselves are the elite of society. So, in the numerous codes of conduct of doctors already mentioned, the idea was traced that they are called upon not only to fight death, but also know the secrets healthy lifestyle life. In some particularly radical cases, the profession is recognized as the standard of morality, because it corresponds to the model of sacrifice, selflessness and contributes to the prosperity of society.

The next feature of professional ethics concerns the nature of regulation and the authority behind it. Of course, the professional community itself is considered an authority, and the most respected representatives, who will be given such high confidence, can speak on its behalf. From this context, it becomes obvious that both the investigation and sanctions are also the business of the community itself. His trial and verdict is the decision of a panel of professionals in relation to those who misunderstood their high destiny, used their status to the detriment of the community, and thus deleted themselves from it. Based on these attitudes, it is impossible to imagine that ethical control is carried out by third-party observers. As you know, the professional environment is extremely sensitive to any form of external regulation.

The nature of the sanctions provided for by professional ethics also follows from ideas about the special status of this type of activity. If a person occupies such a high position in society, then the requirements for him should be the highest. Almost no code of professional ethics is complete without specifying the sanctions applicable to violators. The profession is proud of its social significance, therefore it is ready to exclude apostates from its sphere. As a rule, sanctions range from announcing a remark on behalf of a board of authorized persons to deprivation of professional status. It is obligatory that in the section of sanctions it is mentioned about other measures of influence, except for ethical ones - legislative or administrative. This once again emphasizes the social role of the profession and the interest of society itself in its development. Accordingly, the codes necessarily contain a list of possible violations. And just as in the case of the main value orientations of professionalism, their meaning should be intuitively understandable to the representative of each specific occupation.

Based on the foregoing, the tasks of professional ethics become obvious. For the community behind it, it is important not to lose its status, prove its social significance, respond to the challenges of rapidly changing conditions, strengthen its own cohesion, develop common standards for joint activities and protect itself from the claims of other areas. professional competence. In this regard, it is worth noting that today the most active in this area are mainly young professions, for whom it is very important to prove their right to exist.

However, this type of ethical theory and practice has some drawbacks. At first glance, one can note its closed, narrow nature, relying only on one's own authority in the implementation of a moral assessment, which turns into unreasonable ambitions in resolving acute conflict situations. The professional environment is fundamentally conservative; traditions and foundations play a huge role in it. This is good when it comes to continuity and development, for example, scientific schools, but is it enough in the modern world to build ethical regulation only on traditions and foundations? In addition, moral consciousness cannot agree that professionalism is considered the main value of any social practice. If there is a need to discuss the emerging moral problems in the field of a particular activity, this means that the usual ideas about professional duty are not enough for its normal functioning. The relationship between professionalism and morality is one of the most popular topics in the philosophy of the 20th century. The result of reflection can be recognized as the idea that, in comparison with eternal moral values, the essence of professionalism cannot be recognized as obvious and unchanged.

Types of professional ethics

Different types of professional ethics have their own traditions. This testifies to the continuity of the basic ethical norms developed by representatives of a particular profession over the centuries. These are, first of all, those universal moral norms in the sphere of labor that humanity has preserved and carried through various social formations, although often in a modified form.

So, each type of professional ethics is determined by the peculiarity of the profession and the requirements for it on the part of society. But, as we have already noted, society imposes increased moral requirements on certain types of activity. First of all, these are the requirements for specialists who have the right to manage the life and health of people associated with a variety of services; upbringing, training and education. The activities of people in these professions, more than any other, do not lend themselves to clear and comprehensive regulation, do not fit within the framework of official instructions and standards. And moral responsibility and moral choice are of decisive importance in the process of exercising their professional duties. The society considers the moral qualities of these specialists as structural components of their professional suitability.

In medical ethics, all the norms and moral principles of the profession are focused on improving and maintaining human health. Even in ancient India, it was believed that a doctor “should have a pure compassionate heart, a calm temperament, be distinguished by the greatest confidence and chastity, constant striving to do good". These qualities are also required from modern doctors, and the principle of their professional activity “do no harm” was, is and will be fundamental at all times. However, situations of moral contradiction are often encountered in the activities of physicians. So, in order to maintain confidence in their abilities, they have the moral right to embellish the real state of things, because in some situations the main thing is not the formal implementation of one or another specific moral norm, but the preservation of the highest value - human life. In addition, advances in science pose moral issues for medical professionals in the new environment, such as moral issues associated with organ transplants. A special moral problem that has long existed in medical practice is euthanasia - the painless bringing of a hopelessly ill person to death.

Pedagogical ethics studies the specifics and content of the teacher's moral activity, finds out the features of the implementation of the general principles of morality in the field of pedagogical work. The ethics of a teacher, like the ethics of a doctor, also have ancient roots. Already in ancient Greece, the teacher was required to love children, deep knowledge of his subject, restraint, justice in punishments and rewards. The specificity of pedagogical morality is due to the fact that the "object" of the teacher's activity is the child's personality, the process of development and formation of which is associated with a large number of contradictions, moral dilemmas and conflicts. At the same time, representatives of this profession all the time feel a special responsibility to society. Therefore, it is very difficult for them to implement moral principles in their relationships with children, their parents, and also with their colleagues.

The process of educating and educating the younger generation requires from the teacher not only high qualifications, but also a whole set of moral qualities that become professionally significant for creating favorable relations in the pedagogical process. These are humanity, kindness, tolerance, decency, honesty, responsibility, justice, commitment, restraint. The moral requirements for the teacher worked out and fixed in the course of the development of social thought and the norms arising from them underlie the code of pedagogical morality. It fixes the requirements that are of a universal nature, as well as those that are designated by the new tasks currently facing pedagogical science and practice.

Judicial ethics studies the moral content of existing procedural principles and norms, the specifics of the action of general moral principles in the field of justice. It substantiates the content of the professional duty of a judge, develops moral requirements that a specialist in this profession must follow. First of all, he must possess such qualities as honesty, justice, objectivity, humanism, restraint, fidelity to the spirit and letter of the law, incorruptibility, dignity.

The ethics of service professionals “adapts” the already known principles of moral consciousness to the specifics of this activity, which is associated with a culture of communication, with courtesy and considerateness in relations with customers, with the need to ensure that the growing demands and needs of people are met. For example, a tourism worker must be an erudite, well-educated person. After all, tourism services are the action of a certain consumer value, which is expressed in a beneficial effect that satisfies one or another human need. For example, the human need for knowledge of the surrounding world, i.e. comprehend something, get new information, learn something more fully.

The ethics of a scientist formulates such moral features of a person as scientific conscientiousness, honesty, civil courage, democracy, patriotism, responsibility. The morality of scientific activity requires defending the truth and seeking the use of scientific achievements in the interests of mankind. It denies the desire to falsify the results of laboratory research, to embellish the facts to prove one or another theoretical position.

In recent years, problems have been actively developed work ethics which substantiates:

1) principles and norms of moral behavior of leaders at different levels - the ethics of the leader;
2) the relationship of subordinates to their superiors;
3) formal and informal interactions between employees. As a result, official morality can be singled out as an element of the moral culture of leaders and subordinates, complementing specific relationships within the framework of the performance of professional duties.

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Ethics (ethics from thos - custom, temper, character) is a set of principles and norms of behavior adopted in a given era and in a given social environment. The main subject of study of ethics is morality.

Morality- these are norms and rules imposed on a person, the implementation of which is voluntary.

The word "ethics" comes from the Greek "ethos", the word "morality" - from the Latin "mos". The meaning of both words is disposition, custom *. Unlike a simple custom or tradition*, moral norms receive an ideological justification in the form of ideals of good and evil, justice, and so on.

Ethics originates in society as a result of awareness of the role and essence of moral relations and, in a developed state, is a science of morality that contains two components: theoretical research (theoretical ethics) and normative developments (normative ethics).

Theoretical ethics explores the origin and essence of morality, its role and place in society, functions, mechanism of action, its main components (primarily moral consciousness and moral behavior), the nature of the connection between them, the structure of moral relations and their significance for the system. public relations generally. In addition, theoretical ethics reveals the content of the value bases of morality (good, good, evil, the meaning of life, happiness), develops a scale of morality (ideal - virtue - vice) and defines its criteria. In contact with psychology and sociology, she explores the real level of morality of society (morality) and the factors influencing it.

Normative ethics concentrates its interest on the study of spontaneously formed representations of moral consciousness, which reflect the motives included in the moral attitude of a person, clarifying, systematizing, concretizing them, transforming them into certain recommendations, normative ethics develops ways to improve the moral practice of society. Normative ethics deals with the question of how a person should act.

This is social purpose of ethics. The role of ethics as a science in the current period being experienced by modern Russian society is great: it must analyze the moral state of society, indicate the reasons that caused this state, and propose solutions that would help update the moral guidelines of society.

Among the branches of ethical science, professional ethics are distinguished.

Professional ethics is a set of certain duties and norms of behavior that support the moral prestige of professional groups in society. IN tasks of professional ethics includes the identification of moral norms and assessments, judgments and concepts that characterize people in the role of representatives of a particular profession.

The subject of professional ethics development of norms, standards, requirements specific to certain types of activities.

Professional ethics should also explain morality and teach morality, instill moral principles and ideas of duty and honor, morally educate employees. Ethics is designed to educate, to help people behave correctly with people, communicate in a production team, etc. Professional ethics teaches to follow the standards of morality accepted as the norm of human behavior in certain activities. The worker should be guided by these standards. Aiming at this standard, the service worker must educate in himself the appropriate personal quality. Professional ethics is designed to regulate human relations in the sphere of production.

Each profession has its own specifics adopted in it and the current system of values. Moreover, one and the same act can be considered as moral, non-moral and even immoral, depending on how it expresses the attitude towards the current system of values. professional ethics social crisis

Professional ethics governs the relationship of people in business communication. At the heart of professional ethics there are certain norms, requirements and principles. Principles are abstract, generalized ideas that enable those who rely on them to correctly shape their behavior, their actions in the business sphere.

• 1. Gold standard: “Within the framework of your official position, never allow in relation to your subordinates, to management, to colleagues of your official position, never to allow in relation to your subordinates, to management, to colleagues of your official level, to clients, etc. P. actions that you would not want to see in relation to yourself.
• 2. Fairness in providing employees with the resources necessary for their official activities (cash, raw materials, material, etc.).
• 3. Mandatory correction of an ethical violation, regardless of when and by whom it was committed.
• 4. Maximum progress: employee behavior and actions are considered ethical if they contribute to the development of the organization (or its units) from a moral point of view.
• 5. A minimum of progress, according to which the actions of the employee or the organization as a whole are ethical, if they at least do not violate ethical standards.
• 6. Ethical is the tolerant attitude of the employees of the organization to the moral principles, traditions, etc. that take place in other organizations, regions, countries.
• 7. Reasonable combination of individual relativism and ethical relativism with the requirements of universal (universal) ethics.
• 8. Individual and collective principles are equally recognized as the basis for the development and decision-making in business relations.
• 9. You should not be afraid to have your own opinion when solving any official issues. However, nonconformism as a personality trait should be manifested within reasonable limits.
• 10. No violence, i.e. “pressure” on subordinates, expressed in various forms, for example, in an orderly, command manner of conducting an official conversation.
• 11. The constancy of the impact, expressed in the fact that ethical standards can be introduced into the life of the organization not by a one-time order, but only with the help of ongoing efforts on the part of both the manager and ordinary employees.
• 12. When exposed (on a team, individual employee, consumer, etc.), take into account the strength of possible counteraction.
• 13. The expediency of advancing with trust - a sense of responsibility of the employee, to his competence, to a sense of duty, etc.
• 14. The desire for conflict-free.
• 15. Freedom that does not restrict the freedom of others; usually this principle, although in an implicit form, is due to job descriptions.
• 16. The employee must not only act ethically himself, but also promote the same behavior of his colleagues.
• 17. Do not criticize a competitor.

These principles should serve as the basis for the development by each employee of any organization, the management of their own personal ethical system.

The structure of professional ethics includes:

Each type of human professional activity corresponds to certain types of professional ethics with their own specific features. Ethics considers the moral qualities of a person, regardless of the mental mechanisms that stimulate the appearance of these qualities. The study of ethics shows the diversity of professional moral relations, moral norms. Professional moral norms are rules, samples, the order of internal regulation of a person based on ethical ideals.

Professional ethics of a state and municipal employee the science of professional morality; a code of conduct, including the ethical principles of the norm, the moral requirements of society for the moral essence of a state and municipal employee, the social purpose of their official activities, the nature of relations with society, the state in the process of ensuring their interaction and protecting the rights and legitimate interests of citizens; it is a system of common values ​​and rules governing the relationship between managers and subordinates, colleagues in the process of their joint activities aimed at creating a favorable moral and psychological climate in the team and achieving the goals arising from the appointment of this profession.

 

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